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STOCK-BREEDING: 



A PKACTICAL TEEATISE 

ON THE APPLICATIONS OP THE 

LAWS OF DEVELOPMENT AND HEREDITY TO THE 

IMPROVEMENT AND BREEDING OF 

DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 



MANLY MILES, M. D., 

PaOFESSOB OP AGBICULTTTEK IN MASSACHCSKTTS AGEIOXJLTTTBAL COLLSGB. 



/■A 

/ 




NEW YORK: 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 

1, 3, AND 5 BOND STKEET, 

1883. 



u 1 



COPTEIGHT BT 

D. APPLETOJSr AND COMPANY, 

1878. 



COPTEIGHT BY 

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 






PEEFAOE. 



It is somewhat remarkable, in this book-making 
age, that there is no systematic work accessible to the 
student in which the known facts and principles of 
the art of improving and breeding domestic animals 
are presented, in convenient form, for stndj and ref- 
erence, notwithstanding the importance of live-stock 
to the farmer, and the wonderful progress that has 
been made in its improvement since the time of Bake- 
well. 

The present attempt to supply this want has been 
made in response to the repeated sohcitations of per- 
sons interested in stock-breeding, who have attended 
my lectures on this subject, in various places, for sev- 
eral years past. 

In a popular exposition of the principles of an art 
that is almost exclusively based upon the experience 
of practical men there is little opportunity for origi- 
nality, aside from the classification and arrangement 
of facts, and the inferences, in some instances, that 



iv PREFACE. 

may be drawn from them in explaining the practice 
of the most successful breeders. 

It is believed that a systematic statement of what 
is already known in the practice of the art is of greater 
importance, at the present time, than any new tiniths, 
as it must furnish the only consistent foundation for 
future progress and improvement. 

The numerous cases that have been collected to 
illustrate the various topics under discussion have 
been compiled, as far as possible, from original sources 
and presented in their original form — ^references, in 
nearly all cases, being given to the works from which 
they are quoted. 

This feature of the work will be of interest to the 
student who wishes to study the subject in greater 
detail, as it will, to some extent, serve as an index to 
authorities that may be profitably consulted. 

In the limits of a popular work it is of course im- 
possible to treat each topic exhaustively, and the at- 
tempt has been made to present only such an outline 
of the principles of the art as would be required in 
a text-book for students, or a work of reference for 
farmers. 

The acknowledgments of the author are due to 
the well-known animal-artist John R. Page, of Ben- 
nett, New York, for the spirited illustrations in the 
chapter on " Form," all of which are from life, with 



PREFACE. V 

the exception of Fig. 8, wHcli is after a sketch by 
the Hon. Francis Kotch. 

It is to be hoped that the resume of cases here 
presented may lead breeders to recognize the impor- 
tance of placing on record the additional facts, from 
their own experience, that are required for a more 
complete discussion of the subjects treated in this 
volume. 

Lansing, Michigan, July 20, 1878. 



OONTEE"TS. 



CHAP. 

I. Breeding as an Art .... 


PAOB 

1 


n. Heredity op Normal Charactj!;ks . 


11 


in. Heredity op Diseases .... 


. 22 


IV. Heredity op Acquired and Abnormal Characters 


40 


V. Atavism ...... 


. 66 


YI. Law of Correlation .... 


83 


VII. Variation ..... 


. 92 


Vin. Fecundity ...... 


108 


IX. In-and-in Breedinq .... 


. 137 


X. Cross-Breeding ..... 


190 


XL Relative Influence op Parents 


. 215 


XTT Influence of a Previous Impregnation 


255 


Xlll. Intra-Uterine Influences 


. 281 


XIV. Sex 


296 


XV. Pedigree ...... 


. 337 


XVL Form of Animals as an Index of Qualities 


352 


XVIL Selection ..... 


. 385 


XVIII. Period of Gestation . . 


400 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING, 



CHAPTEH I. 

BEEEDma AS AK AET. 

The art of breeding domesticated animals, for the 
various purposes to which they are adapted, has been 
practised from the earliest times. 

The oldest writers on agriculture ga\^e directions 
for the breeding and improvement of cattle, and some 
of their maxims are often repeated by modem authori- 
ties as the best practical guides to the farmer. 

It has long been known that the characteristics of 
parents were transmitted to their offspring, and the 
results of observation were tersely expressed in the 
familiar aphorism, " like produces like." As a natural 
corollary of this generally-accepted law of the animal 
organization, the rule " breed from the best " very 
early found a place among the approved maxims of 
the art. 

The principles of breeding, up to the time of Bake- 
well, were essentially comprised in these two apo- 
thegms ; but it is evident, from the practice of breed- 
ers,'that they did not fully appreciate the extended ap- 



2 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

plications of these empirical expressions, that repre- 
sent the fundamental principles of the best modern 
practice. 

The early breeders, like many at the present time, 
had no consistent system of selection. The ".best" 
of any given selection for breeding, made in accord- 
ance with the time-honored rule, differed in all essen- 
tial details of form and quality from the " best " that 
were selected at another time. 

Their standard of excellence was, in fact, constantly 
changing, so that no real progress in the development 
of the most valuable qualities could be made. 

Shortly after the middle of the last century, Robert 
Bakewell, of Dishley Grange, Leicestershire, England, 
originated a new system which he successfully prac- 
tised in the improvement of Leicester sheep. Long-horn 
cattle, and Black cart-horses. His belief that the fa- 
miliar maxim, " like begets like," was not limited to 
a general similarity of the offspring to the parent, but 
extended to the minutest details of the organization, 
led him to adopt for his guidance a definite standard 
of excellence representing the form and internal quali- 
ties that were best adapted to the highest develop- 
ment of the animal for a special purpose. 

His critical study of the form and proportions of 
animals, and their relations to the most desirable quali- 
ties, enabled him to develop an ideal model of perfec- 
tion, that he kept constantly in view when making 
his selections for breeding. 

In his sheep and cattle he endeavored to secure a 
large proportion of choice parts in the carcass, a supe- 
rior quality of flesh, with ,a tendency to early maturity. 



BREEDING AS AN ART. 3 

and uniformitj in the transmission of their most valu- 
able qualities to their offspring. 

Beautj in the form and proportions of his animals 
was always made to contribute to the development of 
useful characters. Mr. Bake well's success in the im- 
provement of the animals he was breeding must be 
attributed to the exercise of a combination of talents 
that would have made him eminent in any profession 
or pursuit. 

A correct and well-trained eye enabled him to 
detect the slightest variations of form; and these, 
from his knowledge o£ the animal organization, ob- 
tained by long-continued and systematic observation, 
he associated with the correlated qualities they rep- 
resented. 

Kelying upon his own good judgment, which was 
not biased by non-essential conditions or fanciful the- 
ories, he not only accepted all that was consistent in 
the received rules of the art, but established new prin- 
ciples of the greatest practical importance. 

He seems to have been apt in tracing the relations 
of cause and effect, and methodical and persevering 
in the execution of his well-considered plans for im- 
provement. 

"With the spirit of a true artist, he endeavored to 
mould the plastic forms of his animals to give expres- 
sion to his ideal conception of the qualities that con- 
stitute perfection. 

The method of Bakewell has been successfully 
practised by other able men ; and we now have, as the 
result of their labors, a variety of improved breeds of 
remarkable excellence, each differing from the others 



4 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

in the particular characters that adapt them to special 
conditions and purposes. 

Success in the breeding of live-stock, as in all 
other departments of farm management, must be 
measured by the actual value of the products, and the 
profits that may be derived from them. 

The relative value of animals depends upon their 
adaptation to a particular purpose, and the returns 
they make for feed consumed. It is evident that, 
where a particular form of animal product is the lead- 
ing object, the greater value will be placed upon the 
animal that excels in its production. Excellence in 
other directions may be desirable, but it will not 
compensate for a deficiency in the special qualities 
required. 

The return obtained, in any form of animal prod- 
uct, for feed consumed, is of the first importance in 
estimating the value of animals. Mr. Bakewell re- 
garded live-stock as machines for converting the vege- 
table products of the farm into animal products of 
greater value ; and Sir John Sinclair expresses the 
same idea when he says, " Under the head of live- 
stock are comprehended the various sorts of domesti- 
cated animals which are employed by man as instru- 
ments for converting to his use, either by labor or 
otherwise, those productions of the soil which are not 
immediately applicable to supply his wants in their 
natural state." ^ 

The animal that furnishes the largest amount and 
the best quality of the desired animal product, from 
a given amount of food, would xmdoubtedly be the 

* " Code of Agriculture," p. 84. 



BREEDING AS AN ART. 5 

" best ; " or, looking more particularly at tlie activity 
of tlie animal machinery, it might be said that the 
animal that converts the largest amount of food into 
animal products of the best quality, with the least 
possible waste of material, would be the most valu- 
able. 

It is often assumed that animals that eat but little 
are the most profitable, but this error is evidently 
founded on mistaken notions of the functions of ani- 
mal life, and the true place that they occupy in the 
economy of the farm. A machine that will convert 
the largest amount of raw material into the desired 
product, with the least possible wear, and the least 
expenditure of fuel to furnish the required motive- 
power, would be more valuable than one that required 
less fuel, but in which the capacity for efficient work 
was diminished in a greater ratio. 

The repairs of the animal machine are made at the 
expense of food consumed, and, if the animal is capa- 
ble of digesting and assimilating only what is required 
for this purpose, it would be comparatively worthless, 
as a profit can only be obtained from the food assimi- 
lated in excess of this amount. 

In my experiments in feeding swine, the best re- 
turns for feed consumed were obtained when the ani- 
mals ate the most in proportion to their live weight, 
and this is undoubtedly the rule in stock-feeding. 
This is readily explained by the fact that, when a 
large amount of food is consumed by an animal, pro- 
viding it is capable of digesting and assimilating it, 
the j^ojportion of food required to supply the waste 
of the tissues and keep the animal machinery in work- 



6 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

ing order is less than when a smaller amount is con- 
sumed/ 

It wiU not, then, be desirable to breed animals that 
eat but little, as we cannot reasonably expect them to 
give as large a proportionate return for feed consumed 
as those that have efficient digestive organs of greater 
capacity. 

A comparison of the results obtained with different 
animals is generally neglected by farmers, and they 
therefore make too little difference in the price of 
their best animals, that are capable of returning a fair 
profit on the food consumed, and those of inferior 
quality, that do not, perhaps, pay for their keep. 

The great difference in the relative value of ani- 
mals will be best shown by a few illustrations. 

One cow yields five pounds of butter a week, 
which, at twenty cents a pound, would be one dollar, 
or twenty dollars for twenty weeks, which we will 
assume is the period of usefulness for the year. 

Another yields eight pounds of butter a week, 
worth one dollar and sixty cents, and the total return 
for twenty weeks would be thirty-two dollars, or 
twelve doUars more than was realized from the first 
cow. This difference represents the interest on one 
hundred and twenty dollars, at ten per cent, for the 
year. On the same basis, a cow yielding ten pounds 
of butter a week would earn forty dollars in twenty 
weeks, or twenty dollars more than the first cow, and 
this difference would be the interest on two hundred 
dollars for the year. 

Three pounds of wool from one sheep, at fifty 

^ " Michigan Agricultural Report," ISlB, p. 120. 



BREEDING AS AN ART. 7 

cents per pound, would bring one dollar and fifty- 
cents ; and six pounds from another, at the same 
price, would bring three dollars, a diiference of one 
dollar and fifty cents, or the interest on fifteen dollars. 
Even if it is claimed that the animals giving the 
greatest return consume considerably more food than 
the inferior ones, there would still remain a great dif- 
ference in the profits of their products. 

If in the same way we estimate the relative value 
of sires, by comparing the qualities of their offspring, 
it would be seen that one capable of increasing the 
value of the flock or herd would be well worth a good 
price ; while another, that could not be relied on to 
impress any good qualities upon his offspring, would 
be dear at any price. 

The object of the art of breeding is the improve- 
ment of animals in those qualities that have a definite 
value, among which are the production of meat, and 
milk, and wool, and labor. 

Breeders who have been the most successful in 
improving the various pure breeds have endeavored 
to obtain the highest development of some one of 
these qualities ; while the others, which they looked 
upon as of secondary importance, have been quite 
generally neglected. 

It must not, however, be assumed that these quali- 
ties are absolutely incompatible, so that a high degree 
of excellence in two or more of them cannot be ob- 
tained in the same animal ; but it is undoubtedly 
easier to secure an extraordinary development of a 
single character than to obtain the same degree of 
excellence in two or more at the same time. 



8 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

Wheii tlie entire energies of tlie system are acting 
in a particular direction, as they must do to insure the 
highest development of a single quality, there is no 
residuum of force for the development of other quali- 
ties that are not strictly correlated with the one that 
is made dominant. 

The modern art of breeding is founded on the 
practice of the most successful breeders, and its rules 
have been almost exclusively empirical in their origin. 

The science of physiology, by explaining the prin- 
ciples on which many of these rules are based, has de- 
fined the limits of their applications with greater ex- 
actness, and suggested new fields for investigation. 

In its progress the art has, however, kept constant- 
ly in advance of the allied science of physiology, which 
it has aided in developing by presenting, in its definite 
facts, the required data for successful scientific study. ^ 

With the progress of knowledge, the unexplained 
precepts of the art are gradually diminishing, and the 
many theories that have been framed from partial 
views of the truth must be replaced by consistent 
principles of general application. 

The inferior quahty of the live-stock on the farms 
throughout the country shows that the relations of 
the art of breeding to the practice of agriculture have 
been too generally overlooked by farmers. 

Looking upon live-stock as a special interest, and 

^ WheweU remarks that "in all cases the arts are prior to the 
related sciences. Art is the parent, not the progeny, of science : the 
realization of principles in practice forms part of the prelude, as well 
as the sequel, of theoretical discovery " (" History of the Inductive 
Sciences," vol. i., p. 240). 



BREEDING AS AN ART. 9 

referring to their past experience witli animals that 
were entirely unfitted for any useful purpose, it is not 
strange that the assumption that " live-stock will not 
pay " is so often repeated. 

The same opinion seemed to prevail among the 
farmers of Rome in the first century, and Columella 
pointed out to them the fallacy of this prejudice 
against one of the most important interests of the 
farm.^ 

Conrad Heresbach, quoting Fundanius in Yarro, 
compares the tillage of the soil and the interest in 
live-stock to two instruments in an orchestra, each 
differing in sound ; and he terms " the grazier's trade 
the treble, and the tiller's occupation the base," each 
aiding in the harmony as a whole.' 

Fitzherbert expresses the same idea when he says, 
" An husbande cannot well thryve by his corne with- 
out he have other cattell, nor by his cattell without 
come, for els he shall be a byer, a borrower, or a 
beggar." ' 

George Culley, in his valuable treatise on live- 
stock, says, "According to the present improved sys- 
tem of farming there is such a connection between 
the cultivation of the ground and breeding, rearing, 
and fattening cattle, sheep, and other domestic ani- 
mals, that a man will make but an indifferent figure 
in rural affairs if he does not understand the latter as 
well as the former." * 

* " Columella of Husbandry," book vi., p. 256. 

2 "Foure Bookcs of Husbandrie" (1586), p. 111. 

3 " Boke of Husbandry " (1532), p. 34 (reprint, 176V). 

4 " Live-stock," by Culley, fourth edition, 1807, p. 1. 



10 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

The statements of these writers were not made on 
theoretical gronnds, but represented the opinions of 
those who were most successful in their system of 
practice. 

At the present time farmers throughout the coun- 
try should give greater attention to live-stock, as the 
first step in the improvement of their system of farm- 
ing. 

Animals of the best quality, that are adapted to 
the conditions of the farm and the particular purpose 
that the system of management demands, will yield 
profitable returns for the feed consumed, and furnish 
the best means of enriching the soil for the growing 
of grain. 

The principles that guide the breeder of pure-bred 
stock are likewise applicable to the improvement of 
the common stock of the farm. 

It is not to be expected that all persons will be 
equally successful in producing animals of extraordi- 
nary merit, but it is, nevertheless, true that a careful 
study of the principles of the art, which are easily 
understood, will enable the farmer to make improve- 
ments in his stock that will add largely to his profits. 



CHAPTEE 11. 

HEREDITY OF NORMAL CHAEACTEES. 

The iiiheritance by the offspring of the characters 
of the parents, at the time of procreation, has been 
generally accepted as a law of the animal organiza- 
tion. 

Although there are many apparent exceptions to 
this law, an examination of all the facts relating to 
the hereditary transmission of structure and qualities 
will, however, show that it is not only constant in its 
action, but extends to every feature of the organiza- 
tion, and that the supposed exceptions are the result 
of the predominant influence of other laws that ob- 
scure the hereditaiy tendency, for the time being, 
without wholly suppressing it. 

The resemblance of offspring to parents, so fre- 
quently remarked, is not, as might at first be sup- 
posed, confined to the external and more obvious 
characters, but manifests itself in the internal struct- 
ure and functional activity of the system. In fact, at 
the moment of birth, the sum of the characters and 
qualities of the young animal have been derived from 
its parents, and we shall find reason for the belief that 
they include every peculiarity in the organization of 
both parents. 



12 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

Tlie nervous system and mental condition, the 
organs of nutrition and reproduction, the habits, pre- 
dispositions, and temperament, the bones, the muscles, 
and the powers of endurance, that characterize the 
parents, are all reproduced in the offspring without 
essential change in their characteristics. 

Illustrations, drawn from the different departments 
of organic life, will serve to show the extent and per- 
sistent action of the law of heredity, and aid us in de- 
termining its applications in the breeding of domestic 
animals. 

In the geological formations, representing immense 
periods of time, fossil species and generic f onns pre- 
sent the same essential characters throughout their 
entire range. 

The various species of wild animals are readily 
recognized wherever found, and the lapse of time 
represented in the historic period has made no appre- 
ciable change in their characters. The animals that 
have been preserved in the monuments of Egypt for 
thousands of years are essentially the same as those 
now found on the borders of the Nile.^ 

So far as the art of breeding is concerned, a con- 
sideration of the various theories of evolution can be 
of no practical value, and the observed repetition of 
generic and specific forms may be assumed to repre- 
sent a constancy in the inherited characteristics of 
animals. 

The cycle of changes through which the embryo 
passes in the process of development remains the 

* Colin, "Physiologie Compar^e," tome ii., p. 533 ; Darwin's " Ani- 
mals and Plants under Domestication," vol. i., pp. 30-60. 



HEREDITY OE NORMAL CHARACTERS. 13 

same in tlie various species, while the disappearance 
of organs that serve a temporary purpose takes place 
at the same period of growth. The races of men, 
when pure, are readily distinguished by peculiarities 
in complexion, features, and general organization. 

The Jews and the gypsies have been cited as illus- 
trations of the hereditary transmission of the peculi- 
arities of a race, as they do not intermarry with other 
families, and their distinguishing characteristics have 
remained the same for centuries.* 

The uniformity observed in the various breeds of 
domestic animals is the result of the inheritance of 
the characters that adapt them to the conditions under 
which they have originated. In the improved breeds 
advantage is taken of the hereditary transmission of 
certain family peculiarities that have been ingrafted 
upon those of the original breed. As the origin and 
development of these improved characters have no 
relation to our present subject, they will be considered 
in another chapter. 

In almost every breed there are favorite families, 
that are prized by breeders for the persistence with 
which they stamp their peculiar characters upon theii 
offspring. 

The breeders of sheep will call to mind the influ- 
ence of the Ellman and the Webb sorts in the im- 
provement of the Southdowns, and of the Dishley 
family in the development of the Leicesters. 

The different cabanas of merino sheep in Spain, 

^ " Heredity," by Ribot, pp. 112-114 ; " Journal of the Royal Agri- 
cultural Society," vol. xiv., p. 106 ; Goodale's " Principles of Breeding," 
p. 23 ; Anderson's " Recreations in Agriculture," vol. i., p. Tl. 



14 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDINa 

that were kept distinct for many years, were charac- 
terized by peculiarities that were uniformly inherited.^ 

Of the offshoots of the original Spanish-merino 
sheep, the Silesian family bred in Europe, and the 
Rich and the Hammond families in the United States, 
furnish further illustrations of the hereditary trans- 
mission of family characters. 

Of cattle, the Booth and the Bates families of 
Short-horns, the Quartley family of Devons, the Dish- 
ley family of Long-horns, and the Ben Tompkins sort 
of the Herefords, may be mentioned as among the 
favorites of breeders, on account of the marked he- 
redity of their peculiar qualities. 

Muscular strength, in connection with remarkable 
powers of endurance, is frequently observed in par- 
ticular families. " In ancient times there were fami- 
lies of athletes, and there have been families of prize- 
fighters. The recent researches of Galton as to wrest- 
lers and oarsmen show that the victors generally 
belong to a small number of families, among whom 
strength and skill are hereditary." ' 

The large proportion of successful racers tracing 
their ancestry to Herod and Eclipse, not in a single 
line only, but in several, furnish a good illustration of 
the hereditary transmission of muscular power. It is 
said that " Eclipse begot 334 and Herod 497 winners." ^ 

^ Livingstone on " The Sheep," p. 21 ; Morrell's " American Shep- 
herd," pp. 'Zl-'ZS ; Randall's "Practical Shepherd," p. 14 ; Youatt on 
"Sheep," p. 156. 

2 " Heredity," by Ribot, p. 6. 

2 " The Horse," by Stonehenge, American edition, p. 142 ; Stone- 
henge, " British Rural Sports," p. 282 ; " The Horse of America," by 
Frank Forrester, vol. ii., p. 265 ; Darwin's "Animals and Plants under 
Domestication," vol. ii., p. 21. 



HEREDITY OF NORMAL CHARACTERS. 15 

The most successful American trotting-horses are 
said to belong to but three families, and of these the 
Messenger is thought to be the best, as it has fur- 
nished a larger number of fast trotters than any 
other.* 

There are families that inherit that peculiar or- 
ganic structure of ear, nervous system, and vocal or- 
gans, that gives rise to what is recognized as musical 
talent. One of the most remarkable instances of this 
form of heredity on record is that of the family of 
Sebastian Bach. " It began in 1550, and continued 
through eight generations. . . . During a period of 
nearly two hundred years this family produced a mul- 
titude of artists of the first rank. ... Its head was 
Weit Bach, a baker of Presburg, who used to seek 
relaxation from labor in music and song. He had 
two sons, who commenced that unbroken line of mu- 
sicians of the same name that for nearly two centuries 
overran Thuringia, Saxony, and Franconia. . . . They 
were all organists or church-singers. ... In this fam- 
ily are reckoned twenty-nine eminent musicians." ' 

The feeding quality, or tendency to lay on fat, 
which is one of the most important characteristics of 
the meat-producing breeds of animals, is also heredi- 
tary. In each distinctive breed, where the production 
of meat is the leading quality, there are certain fami- 
lies that excel in this direction. 

It has been claimed that the predisposition to 
obesity is so strong in many cases that it is observed 

* " Horse Portraiture," by Simpson, p. 303. 
« Ribot on " Heredity," p. 63 ; Carpenter's " Mental Physiology," 
p. 273. 



16 PEINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDDsc^. 

even under the disadvantages of privation and hard 
labor. ^ 

The duration of the life of an individual is deter- 
mined, to a great extent at least, by inheritance. The 
members of some families die at an early age, while in 
other families a ripe old age may be reasonably expect- 
ed. The life-tables that have been constructed show 
the average expectation of life of the masses ; while the 
expectation of life of an individual can only be approxi- 
mately determined by the age attained by his ancestors. 

Darwin mentions " the case of four brothers who 
died between the ages of sixty and seventy, in the 
same highly-peculiar comatose state.' . . . 

" It is now generally understood that longevity 
depends far less on race, climate, profession, mode of 
life, or food, than on hereditary transmission." 

There are long-lived families under what would be 
considered unfavorable conditions for longevity, while 
other families are short-lived under the most favorable 
conditions for the promotion of health. " The aver- 
age of life," says Dr. Lucas, "plainly depends on 
locality, hygiene, and civilization, but individual lon- 
gevity is entirely exempt from these conditions. 
Everything tends to show that long life is the result 
of an internal principle of vitality, which privileged 
individuals receive at their birth. It is so deeply im- 
printed in their nature as to make itself apparent in 
every part of the organization." ' 

^ " Heredity," by Ribot, p. 3 ; Colin, " Physiologic Comparee," tome 
ii., p. 534. 

^ "Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. ii., p. 28. 

^"Heredity," by Ribot, p. 5; Smith's "Physical Indications of 
Longevity," p. 3. 



HEREDITY OF NORMAL CHARACTERS. 17 

The remarkable difference tliat is observed in the 
fecundity, not only of individuals but of classes and 
families, is undoubtedly owing to inherited peculiari- 
ties of the system. As a rule, the lower groups of 
animals present a greater activity of the reproductive 
powers than the higher. Among the vertebrates the 
oviparous classes are more prolific than the viviparous. 
Certain families are noted for their fecundity, while 
in others it is rare to find an individual that has many 
descendants. 

Girou relates the case of a mother who gave birth 
to twenty-four children, among them five girls, who 
in turn gave birth to forty-six children in all. The 
daughter of this woman's son, while still young, gave 
birth to her sixteenth child. 

In some families inherited fecundity has been ob- 
served for five or six generations. " The sons, daugh- 
ters, and grandchildren, of a couple who were the 
parents of nineteen children, were nearly all gifted," 
says Lucas, " with the same fecundity." * 

Those familiar with the various breeds of domestic 
animals will call to mind many cases that illustrate 
the heredity of the procreative powers. 

Of the high-bred families of the improved breeds, 
some are remarkably prolific, while others are almost 
uniformly deficient in this important quality. 

The imported Short-horn cow. Young Mary, by 
Jupiter (2170), had fourteen heifer-calves and one 
bull, and died at the age of twenty-one years. 

Her offspring were almost without exception re- 

1 " Heredity," by Ribot, p. 4 ; " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physi- 
ology," vol. ii., p. 471. 
2 



18 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

markably prolific. Mr. Lewis F. Allen, the editor of 
the " American Short-Horn Herd-Book," «ajs, " More 
herd-book pedigrees run to Young Mary than any- 
other half-dozen cows on record." ' 

It is generally admitted by physiologists that the 
mental peculiarities of an individual are determined, 
to a great extent, by hereditary influences. 

Dr. Carpenter says : " The view of the relation of 
mental habits to peculiarities of bodily organization, 
whether congenital or acquired^ must be extended to 
that remarkable hereditary transmission of psychical 
character which presents itself under circumstances 
that entirely forbid our attributing it to any agency 
that can operate subsequently to birth, and which it 
would seem impossible to account for on any other 
hypothesis than that the 'formative capacity' of the 
germ, in great degree, determines the subsequent de- 
velopment of the brain, as of other parts of the body, 
and (through this) its mode of activity. . . . And this 
formative capacity, which is the physiological expres- 
sion of what is commonly spoken of as the * original 
constitution' of each individual, is essentially deter- 
mined by the conditions, dynamical and material, of 
the parent organisms." ^ • 

In domestic animals it is a matter of common ob- 
servation that the temper or disposition, and other 
mental peculiarities of individuals, are determined 

^ " History of Short-Horns," p. 217. For further illustrations, see 
the chapter on " Fecundity." 

"^ " Mental Physiology," pp. 367, 368 ; " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and 
Physiology," vol. ii., p. 471 ; Carpenter"'s " Human Physiology," p. 817. 
Ribot, in his work on " Heredity," gives an extended discussion of the 
hereditary transmission of mental peculiarities. 



HEREDITY OF NORMAL CHARACTERS. 19 

by inheritance. The peculiar imperfection of vision 
manifested in the inability to distinguish colors — 
popularly known as color-blindness — is also hereditary. 
Of the many instances on record of the hereditary 
transmission of this defect, the following is perhaps 
the most remarkable. Dr. Pliny Earle says: "My 
maternal grandfather and two of his brothers were 
characterized by it, and among the descendants of the 
first-mentioned there are seventeen persons in whom it 
is found. I have not been able to extend my in- 
quiries among the collateral branches of the family, 
but have heard of one individual, a female, in one of 
them, who was similarly affected. . . . !N'othing is 
known of the first generation (of five) in regard to the 
power of the perception of colors. In the second, of 
a family consisting of seven brothers and eight sisters, 
three of the brothers — one of whom, as before men- 
tioned, was the grandfather of the writer — ^had the 
defect in question. In the third generation, consist- 
ing of the children of the grandfather aforesaid, of 
three brothers and four sisters, there was no one 
whose ability to distinguish colors was imperfect. In 
the fourth generation, the first family includes five 
brothers and four sisters, of whom two of the former 
have the defect. In the second family there was but 
one child, whose vision was normal. In the third 
there were seven brothers, of whom four had the 
defect. In the fifth, seven sisters and three brothers, 
of all of whom the vision is perfect in regard to 
color. In the sixth, four brothers and ^yq sisters, 
of whom two of each sex have the defect. In the 
seventh, two brothers and three sisters — ^both of the 



20 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

former have the defect. In the eighth there was 
no issue, and in the ninth there are two sisters, 
both of them capable of appreciating colors. Of 
the fifth generation, the defective perception has 
hitherto been detected in but two of the families. 
In one of them, consisting of three brothers and 
three sisters, one of the brothers has the defect, 
and in the other, a male, an only child, is similarly 
affected." * 

The peculiar condition of the lens of the eye ob- 
served in short-sighted people is hereditary, as is also 
the opposite defect, giving what is known as long 
sight." 

" Day-blindness, or imperfect vision under a bright 
light, is inherited, as is night-blindness, or an inca- 
pacity to see except under a strong light. A case has 
been recorded by M. Currier of this latter defect 
having affected eighty-five members of the same fam- 
ily during six generations." ' 

Dr. Earle likewise gives the case of a family in 
which a defective musical ear is associated with an 
imperfect appreciation of colors. 

In a family of my acquaintance a peculiarity in 
the walk is hereditary. 

Hibot says that in some families the hair turns 
gray in early youth, and similar cases have come under 
my own observation. 

The loss of the teeth, when a particular age is 

* American Journal of the Medical Sciences, vol. xxxv., p. 347 ; 
quoted in " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. iv., p. 1453. 
^ Darwin, " Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. ii., p. 17. 
' Darwin, loc. cit, vol. ii., pp. 19, 269. 



HEREDITY OF NORMAL CHARACTERS. 21 

reached, is also an hereditary character in many fami- 
lies. 

Without a further enumeration of details, it may 
be said that every peculiarity of the animal organiza- 
tion is influenced by heredity. 



CHAPTEE III. 

HEEEDITY OF DISEASES. 

Ant abnormal peculiarities of the animal organi- 
zation, constituting disease, whether of structure or 
function, are liable to be transmitted from parent to 
offspring. 

When a disease is characterized bj obvious struct- 
ural changes in any part of the system, its heredity 
is seldom called in question ; but when it consists in a 
simple derangement of function, without any apparent 
indications of structural transformation, its hereditary 
character is frequently overlooked. As the progress 
of physiological science, however, makes us better 
acquainted with the minute structure of the various 
organs of the body, and the relations of such structure 
to their activity, the cases of functional disturbance 
that are not known to be accompanied by correspond- 
ing changes in structure have rapidly diminished, and 
that to so great an extent that it seems probable that 
aU indications of disease are the result of some struct- 
ural modification of the organs involved. 

The hereditary transmission of some peculiarity in 
the performance of the function of an organ, without 
apparent structural change, is perhaps not more diffi- 
cult to understand than the heredity of habits that, in 



HEREDITY OF DISEASES. 23 

themselves, are not beneficial. It may, in fact, be 
said that any peculiarity in tbe functional activity of 
an organ, if long continued, may result in a babit of 
tbe system which the offspring will in aU probability 
inherit. 

Hereditary disease may make its appearance at the 
time of birth, when it is said to be congenital, or a 
considerable length of time may elapse before any 
indications of its presence are observed. In the latter 
case 2i predisposition or tendency to the disease is said 
to be inherited, which often requires some external 
exciting cause for its full development.* 

There are certain diseases that are transmitted 
with greater uniformity than others ; yet a predispo- 
sition to almost every known form of disease is likely 
to become hereditary, even if the influence that deter- 
mines its transmission is not sufficiently intense to 
render it congenital. It is not my purpose to describe 
or even enumerate aU the diseases that are known to 
be hereditary, but to notice only those that illustrate 
the laws of hereditary transmission, or that, from 
their frequent occurrence, are of particular interest 
to breeders of domestic animals. Under the general 
term "scrofula," a great variety of disorders are in- 
cluded, all of which are characterized by a perversion 
of the nutritive functions, and the formation of pe- 
cuhar tumors, called tubercles, in the various organs 
of the body. The most common forms of scrofulous 

^ Adams on "Hereditary Diseases," p. 19; Williams's "Principles 
of Medicine," p. 4*7; Paget's "Surgical Pathology," p. 514; "Cyclo- 
paedia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. ii., p. 471 ; Aitken's " Science 
and Practice of Medicine," voL ii., p. 35. 



24 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BKEEDING. 

affections are consumption, mesenteric disease, diar- 
rhoea, dysentery, hydrocephalns, and glandular swell- 
ings, the symptoms varying with the organs affected/ 

Scrofulous diseases are of common occurrence in 
horses, cattle, sheep, and swine, either in a congenital 
form, or as a predisposition that may be actively de- 
veloped at any period of life. In treating of the he- 
reditary diseases of cattle, Finlay Dun remarks that 
" a tendency to consumption and to dysentery is often 
indicated by certain well-marked signs. In cattle the 
most obvious of these are a thin and often appar- 
ently long carcass, narrow loins and chest, flat ribs, 
undue length between the prominence of the ilium 
and the last ribs, giving a hollow appearance to the 
flanks, extreme thinness and fineness of the neck and 
withers, hoUowness behind the ears, fullness under 
the jaws, a small and narrow muzzle, . . . hard, un- 
yielding skin, . . . thin and dry hair, irregularity in 
the changing of the coat, inaptitude for fattening, 
prominence of the bones, especially about the haimch 
and tail, and want of harmony among the different 
parts of the body, giving the animal a coarse and un- 
gainly look — appearances all indubitably hereditary, 
and indicative of a weak and vitiated constitution, 
and of a decided scrofulous diathesis." ' 

The peculiarities enumerated are all indications of 



' For a more extended description of this class of diseases the fol- 
lowing authorities may be consulted : Journal of the Royal Agricult- 
ural Society^ vol. xiy., p. 124, vol. xv., pp. 79, 82, voL xvi., p. 21, etc. ; 
Aitken's "Science and Practice of Medicine," vol. ii., p. 215; Gross's 
" System of Surgery," vol. i., p. 264 ; and other standard medical works. 

^ Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society^ vol. xv., p. 82. 



HEREDITY OF DISEASES. 25 

defective nutrition, which is one of the most marked 
characteristics of the disease. The same characters, 
with but little variation, are also indicative of the 
scrofulous habit in horses, sheep, and swine/ 

In the heredity of scrofula, it appears that the 
constitutional defect is readily transmitted ; but it 
may present itself in a different form from that ob- 
served in the generations immediately preceding. If 
the lungs are affected in one generation, the inherited 
predisposition of the next may consist in a tendency 
to glandular swellings, mesenteric disease, or some 

* In March, 1882, Dr. Koch made public his important discovery 
that the cause of scrofula (tuberculosis) was a microscopic, rod-like 
parasite (bacillus), which could be transferred from one animal to an- 
other, and thus communicate the disease. In the congenital form of 
hereditary scrofula the disease may therefore be directly communi- 
cated by the parents to their offspring by means of this specific con- 
tagium, which may be conveyed in the mother's milk, or even in the 
exhalations from the lungs. When the disease appears later in life, 
the inherited tendency to the disease consists in the transmitted con- 
stitutional defects of the parents, which act as predisposing causes, by 
rendering the system peculiarly susceptible to the influence of the spe- 
cific tubercle-bacillus communicated by diseased animals. Aside from 
this inherited tendency, the most potent predisposing causes of scrofula 
are protracted disorder of the digestive organs, food deficient in qual- 
ity and quantity, impure water, confinement in dark, damp, filthy, 
crowded, and unventilated apartments, exposure to cold, or any other 
condition that lowers the vital powers. When a predisposition to 
scrofula is inherited, these conditions will be intensified in their action 
as predisposing causes of the disease. According to Dr. Aitken 
(" Practice of Medicine," vol. ii., p. 234), " the domesticated animal 
is more liable to scrofulous disease than the same animal in a wild 
state. The stabled cow, the penned sheep, the tame rabbit, the mon- 
key, the caged lion, tiger, or elephant, are almost invariably cut off by 
scrofulous affections " — due, undoubtedly, to defective sanitary sur- 
roundings which predispose the system to the action of the specific ba- 
cillus of contagion. 



26 PRINCIPLES OP STOCK-BREEDING. 

other scrofulous affection, while the tendency to lung- 
disease may make its appearance in the next or some 
subsequent generation. 

The same may be said of all so-called " constitu- 
tional diseases," the organ affected determining the 
character of the symptoms that indicate the presence 
of the general defect of the system. 

When the general constitutional predisposition is 
inherited, the conditions to which the animal is sub- 
jected as to food, exposure, etc., may have an influ- 
ence in determining the particular organ in which the 
disease is developed.* 

Dr. Gross says, " The children of consumptive par- 
ents are often cut off by the same disease, or they 
suffer in various parts of the body, as the bones and 
joints, lymphatic ganglions, eye, ear, and serous mem- 
branes." " 

In 1,000 cases of consumption tabulated by Dr. 
Cotton, 367 were hereditary, and of these the brothers 
or sisters were likewise affected in 126 cases. Of the 
114: males whose parents were affected, 59 inherited 
the disease from the father, 40 from the mother, and 
15 from both. Of the 127 females whose parents 

^ The injudicious use of active medicines may also be mentioned as 
an efficient exciting cause of the development of a disease to which the 
animal is predisposed, and the organs subjected to the action of such 
medicines will in all probability become the seat of the affection. A 
severe cathartic, for example, may thus develop the hereditary tendency 
to chronic diarrhoea or dysentery ; or a profuse bloodletting may lower 
the general tone of the system, and thus favor the influence of other 
depressing agencies in developing the disease. 

' "System of Surgery," vol. i., p. 265, See also Dr. Allen on "He- 
reditary Disease," p. 7. 



HEREDITY OF DISEASES. 27 

were affected, 53 inherited the disease from the fa- 
ther, 62 from the mother, and 12 from both.* 

A comparison of .1,031 consumptives with 1,031 
non-consumptives, insured in the Mutual Life In- 
surance Company of 'New York, shows that " nearly 
twice as many of the former had consumptive blood- 
relations as of the latter, or, to speak more accurately, 
18.81 per cent, of the consumptives, and only 10.89 
per cent, of the non-consumptives, had near relations 
(parents or brothers or sisters) who died of consump- 
tion." 

These " cases were all healthy lives, selected after 
medical examination, and one of the rules of this ex- 
amination tended to exclude persons with a decided 
family taint ; hence we should expect to find here a 
much smaller number of tainted families than among 
consumptives in general." ' 

The transmission of mental peculiarities, referred 
to in the preceding chapter, is not confined to those 
idiosyncrasies that are compatible with what may be 
termed a healthy condition of the nervous system, but 
extend also to the various forms of mental disease. 
Among 1,375 lunatics, Esquirol found 337 cases of 
hereditary transmission.' 

In 50 cases of insanity examined by Maudsley, 16 

* " On the Nature, Symptoms, and Treatment of Consumption," by 
R. P. Cotton, M. D., London, 1852, p. 61 ; quoted in the Journal of 
the Royal Agricultural Society^ vol. xvi., p. 35. 

' " Mortuary Experience of the Mutual Life Insurance Company of 
New York," vol. ii., pp. 71-73. 

' Popular Science Monthly, November, 1873, p. 58 ; London Lancet, 
quoted in the Facijw Medical and Surgical Journal, February, 1877, 
p. 406. 



28 PRINCIPLES OP STOCK-BREEDING. 

were hereditary. In T3 cases given bj Trelat, 43 are 
represented as due to heredity. " From a report made 
to the French Government in 1861, it appears that, in 
1,000 cases of persons of each sex admitted to asy- 
lums, 264 males and 266 females had inherited the 
disease. Of the 264 males, 128 inherited from the 
father, 110 from the mother, and 26 from both. Of 
the 266 females, 100 inherited from the father, 130 
from the mother, and 36 from both." ^ 

Dr. Hammond remarks that the hereditary ten- 
dency to insanity is shown " not only by the fact that 
ancestors have been insane, but that insanity in the 
descendants may have resulted from hysteria, epi- 
lepsy, catalepsy, or some other general nervous affec- 
tion in them." ^ 

Bone-spavin, curbs, ring-bone, navicular disease, 
and other similar affections of the bones and joints, 
are of frequent occurrence in the hereditary form. 

Many cases are on record illustrating the heredity 
of this class of diseases, which we need not quote, as 
the fact of their transmission is familiar to every one. 
But a single case will be given, that came under my 
observation several years ago. 

A mare affected with ring-bone, that unfitted her 
for farm-work, was kept as a breeder for several years. 
Her colts were quite uniform in form and color, and, 
as they showed no indications of the disease when two 
or three years old, they found ready buyers at good 
prices. 

At the age of five or six years, however, they all 

» Ribot, "Heredity," p. 131. 

* " Diseases of the Nervous System," p. 376. 



HEREDITY OF DISEASES. 29 

had ring-bone, to a greater or less extent, and several 
were entirely disabled. 

In horses, strain of the back-tendons, swelled legs, 
grease, and roaring, are often hereditary ; while a pre- 
disposition to rheumatism, malignant and non-malig- 
nant tumors, chronic cough, ophthalmia and blind- 
ness, epilepsy, and a great variety of nervous disorders, 
is inherited by them in common with cattle, sheep, 
and swine.^ 

Lucas says, " A blind beggar was the father of four 
sons and a daughter, all blind. Dufau, in his work 
on ^ BKndness,' cites the cases of twenty-one persons 
bhnd from birth, or soon after, whose ancestors — ^fa- 
ther, mother, grandparents, and uncles — ^had some 
serious affection of the eyes." ^ 

According to M. Trehonnais, a stallion, in France, 
became blind from the effects of disease, and all of 
his progeny had the same defect before reaching the 
age of three years.^ 

Dr. Dun says that " a very large number of the 
stock of the celebrated Irish horse Cregan have be- 
come affected by ophthalmia of the worst kind. I 
am told by a gentleman well acquainted with this 
stock that the tendency is still decidedly marked, even 
in the fourth and fifth generations, often appearing, 
and sometimes speedily causing blindness very early 

* " Encyclopedie Pratique de I'Agriculteur," tome viii., p. 678. See 
also a series of articles on " Hereditary Diseases," by Finlay Dun, in 
the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society^ vols, xiv., xv., xvi. 

' Quoted from Ribot on " Heredity," p. 40. See also Darwin's 
"Animals and Plants imder Domestication," vol. ii., p. 18. 

2 " Encyclopedie Pratique de I'Agriculteur," tome viii., p. 678. See 
also " The Horse," by Youatt, p. 115. 



30 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

in life, as at two or three years of age, and even be- 
fore the animals have been exposed to what are con- 
sidered the ordinary exciting causes of ophthalmia." * 

M. Pauli gives the case of a family of nine chil- 
dren who were all bom blind. Sir Henry Holland 
states that four out of five children in one family be- 
came blind at the age of about twelve years, the he- 
reditary character of the defect being confirmed by 
" the existence of a family monument, long prior in 
date, where a female ancestor is represented with 
several children around her, the inscription recording 
that all the number were blind." 

" In the family of Le Compte, thirty-seven chil- 
dren and grandchildren became bhnd like himseK, 
and the blindness in this case occurred about the age 
of seventeen or eighteen years, for three successive 
generations." ^ 

Dr. Dun gives the case of a stallion that, at the 
age of four years, " appeared perfectly sound, and his 
limbs were nearly black, well formed, and fine ; with- 
in a short time, however, they became thick and 
greasy. And, although the mares to which he was 
put were perfectly free from such faults, the progeny 
have shown, in every case where they can be traced, 
unmistakable evidence of their inheriting the greasy 
diathesis of their sire. They have all been found 
liable to swelled legs when they stand idle for a few 

* Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, vol. xiv., p. 120. 

' The last three cases are copied from Mr. Sedgwick's paper in the 
British and Foreign Medico- Cldrurgical Review, April, 1861, p. 250. 
The case of the Le Compte family was originaUy reported in the 30111- 
more Medical and Physical Register, 1809. 



HEREDITY OF DISEASES. 31 

days ; most of them have been the subjects of repeat- 
ed attacks of weed ; all are affected, particularly in 
the spring, with scurfiness of the skin of the hind ex- 
tremities, and excessive itchiness, and lose at a very 
early age their flatness and smoothness of limb." 

" The faults occur, to a greater or less degree, in 
all the stock of this horse by many different mares, 
and are distinctly traceable to the third generation." ^ 

The following case c^ bilateral symmetry in the 
heredity of bony tumors, reported by Dr. Paget, is of 
particular interest, as it illustrates a peculiarity which 
is also observed in other diseases : " A boy, six years 
old, was in St. Bartholomew's Hospital, five years ago, 
who had symmetrical tumors on the lower ends of his 
radii, on his humeri, his scapulae, his fifth and sixth 
ribs, his fibulae, and internal malleoli. On each of 
these bones, on each side, he had one tumor, and the 
only deviations from symmetry were that he had an 
unmatched tumor on the ulnar side of the first pha- 
lanx of his right forefinger, and that each of the 
tumors on the right side was rather larger than its 
fellow on the left. I saw this child's father, a healthy 
laboring-man, forty years old, who had as many, or 
even more, tumors of the same kind as his son ; but 
only a few of them were in the same positions. All 
these tumors had existed from his earliest childhood ; 
they were symmetrically placed, and ceased to grow 
when he attained his f uU stature ; since that time they 
had undergone no apparent change. None of this 
man's direct ancestors, nor any other of his children, 
had similar growths; but four cousins, one female 

* Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society^ vol. xiv., p. 122. 



32 PRINCIPLES OP STOCK-BREEDING. 

and three male children of his mother's sisters, had as 
many of them as himself." ^ 

The inherited predisposition to any form of dis- 
ease may be derived from either or both parents, but, 
in the latter case, it is also likely to be intensified by 
being made a dominant character." 

The hereditary predisposition to disease may not 
be observed in a particular individual, but its recur- 
rence in the offspring shows that the defect has been 
inherited, and likewise transmitted. In such cases 
the influence of favorable sanitary conditions may 
have been sufficient to counteract the inherited ten- 
dency in some degree, or the absence of exciting 
causes may have prevented its development, with- 
out interfering with the potency of its transmission 
to the next generation. The hereditary predispo- 
sition may thus be suspended for several genera- 
tions, and then reappear with an intensity that in- 
dicates the marked persistence of the hereditary 
taint, even in individuals that seem to be exempt 
from it. 

The inherited predisposition to disease, in indi- 
viduals apparently free from it, may often be detected 
by its repeated occurrence in some collateral branches 
of the family. This alternation in the development 
of hereditary disease is observed, not in rare instances 
only, but so frequently that it seems to be the rule, 

^ " Surgical Pathology," p. 465. 

'^ " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. ii., p. 4Y1 ; Car- 
penter's " Mental Physiology," p. 369 ; London Lancet, quoted in the 
Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal, February, 1877, p. 408. (For 
dominant characters see pp. 77 and 78.) 



HEREDITY OF DISEASES. 33 

rather than the exception, in the transmission of con- 
stitutional peculiarities. 

In speaking of the heredity of cancer, Dr. Paget 
says : " Let it be ohserved, this tendency to cancerous 
disease is most commonly derived from a parent who 
is not yet manifestly cancerous ; for, most commonly, 
the children are bom before cancer is evident in the 
parent; so that, as we may say, that which is still 
future to the parent is transmitted potentially to the 
offspring. iN^ay, more, the tendency which exists in 
the parent may never become in him or her effective, 
although it may become effective in the offspring; 
for there are cases in which a grandparent has been 
cancerous, and, although his or her children have not 
been so, the grandchildren have been. Let me repeat, 
the cases of hereditary cancer only illustrate the com- 
mon rule of the transmission of hereditary properties, 
whether natural or morbid. Just as the parent, in 
the perfection of maturity, transmits to the offspring 
those conditions, in germ and rudimental substance, 
which shall be changed into the exact imitation of the 
parent's self, not only in the fullness of health, but in 
all the infirmities of yet future age ; so, also, even in 
seeming health, the same parent may communicate to 
the materials of the offspring the rudiments of yet 
future diseases ; and these rudiments must, in the case 
before us, be such modifications of natural composi- 
tions as, in the course of many years, shall be devel- 
oped or degenerate into materials that will manifest 
themselves in the production of cancer." ' 

Li the cases of hereditary disease already noticed, 

1 " Surgical Pathology," p. 639. 



34: PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

the defect in the system of the ancestors is apparently 
transmitted directly to the offspring, where it makes 
its appearance in the congenital form or as a predis- 
position. 

Animals that are, however, free from constitu- 
tional taint, may transmit indirectly to their offspring 
a predisposition to certain forms of disease, through a 
faulty conformation or proportion of the organization, 
that can hardly be considered abnormal. 

Animals inheriting such peculiarities of structure 
may remain healthy under favorable conditions ; but 
they are liable to disease, from the effects of exposure 
or hard work, that would not be injurious to those 
with a better-proportioned organization. 

According to Finlay Dun, a disproportion in the 
width and strength of the leg below the hock to the 
width and strength above the hock, predisposes to 
spavin ; a straight hock and a short os calcis, inchn- 
ing forward, gives a tendency to curbs ; " round legs 
and small knees, to which the tendons are tightly 
bound, are especially subject to strains ; " while a pre- 
disposition to navicular disease is found "in horses 
with narrow chests, upright pasterns, and out-turned 
toes." ' 

"Many farm -horses, as well as others without 
much breeding, are remarkable for consuming large 
quantities of food, for soft and flabby muscular sys- 
tems, and for round limbs containing an unusual pro- 
portion of cellular tissue. These characters are no- 
toriously hereditary, of which indubitable evidence is 
afforded by their existence in many different indi- 

* Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society ^ vol. xiv., p. 115. 



HEREDITY OP DISEASES. 35 

viduals of the same stock, and their long continuance, 
even under the best management and most efficient 
systems of breeding. Such characters indicate pro- 
clivity to certain diseases, as swelled legs, weed, and 
grease." ^ 

If the leg below the hock is disproportionately 
long, and the os calcis is short (giving a narrow hock), 
a strain of the joint, or some other form of disease, is 
liable to result from an amount of work that would 
not be severe in a limb of proper proportions. 

Any marked dilatation or contraction of the blood- 
vessels gives a tendency to irregularities of the circu- 
lation when the work performed is severe, and a con- 
sequent predisposition to congestion or inflammation 
of important organs. 

Like an engine with a fly-wheel that is not per- 
fectly balanced, the animal organization of faulty pro- 
portions is enabled to perform a moderate amount of 
work without difficulty ; but, when the machinery is 
taxed nearly to its full capacity, the defective adjust- 
ment becomes a source of danger, involving the in- 
tegrity of other parts of the system. 

This indirect transmission of a predisposition to 
disease, through a faulty proportion of parts, is of 
frequent occurrence, and it will undoubtedly explain 
many of the cases of disease appearing suddenly, 
without apparent cause, and in which an heredi- 
tary taint was not suspected, from the fact that the 
ancestors were not affected with the disease in any 
form. 

This form of hereditary transmission furnishes a 

* Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society^ vol. xiv., p. 121. 



36 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

good illustration of the importance, to the breeder, of 
a knowledge of all the details of structure and confor- 
mation of the animal system, and the relations of 
pecuharities of form to strength and constitutional 
vigor. 

The offspring of animals that are very young, with 
a system immature or imperfectly developed, or of 
those that have had their constitution impaired by 
abuse or overwork, will inherit a condition of the sys- 
tem that predisposes to attacks of disease from slight 
exciting causes. 

The effects may not be observed in all cases in a 
single generation, but, if the practice of breeding from 
such imperfect organizations is continued for several 
successive generations, the most unfavorable results 
may be produced. 

It is stated that "jprecocious marriages are not only 
less fertile, but the children also which are the result 
of them have an increased rate of mortality." ^ 

Dr. Duncan adds " the evidence of two gentlemen 
skilled in the breeding of lambs and calves. They 
say that the mortality of the young of these animals, 
when the mothers are immature, is much greater than 
when they are well grown." 

" One of them says : ' Taking the first lamb from 
ewes at one year old has in almost every case failed 
to be remunerative, owing to the frequent death of 
the lambs.' The same may be said of young heifers, 
though the mortality of the offspring may not be so 
marked as in that of sheep." ^ 

^ Dr. Duncan, " Fecundity, Fertility, and Sterility," p. 38. 
s Ibid., p. 390. 



HEREDITY OF DISEASES. 37 

The same author says : " Childbearing by an im- 
mature mother is popularly held to be dangerous to 
the continued general health of the mother, and to 
prevent her complete development in size and beauty. 
I have no positive evidence to adduce in favor of this 
generally-entertained notion, which my own experi- 
ence appears to me to confirm. ... In its corrobora- 
tion, however, I can adduce the ample experience of 
eminent breeders of the lower animals. I have had 
this opinion expressed to me, especially in regard to 
mares, cows, ewes, and bitches." * 

Many other authorities might be cited to the same 
effect, were it not that the influence of early breeding 
in arresting the development of the mother is so often 
observed by intelligent breeders as to render it unne- 
cessary. 

In oviparous animals it has been observed, not 
only that the eggs of very young females are less in 
number and smaller than those produced at maturity, 
but that a larger proportion are not fertile, the yelk 
being frequently wanting or imperfect. And also, in 
other groups of animals, that the number of young 
produced at a birth is less with young mothers than 
with those that are fully developed.* 

GeyeKn says : " It has been ascertained that the 
ovarium of a fowl is composed of six hundred ovules, 
or eggs; therefore a hen, during the whole of her 
life, cannot possibly lay more eggs than six hundred, 
which, in a natural course, are distributed over nine 
years, in the following proportions : 

^ Dr. Duncan, " Fecundity, Fertility, and Sterility," p. 392. 
2 Ibid., pp. 38, 65, '70. 



38 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 



*' First year 


after birth 


Second " 


(( u 


Third " 


u u 


Fourtli " 


u u 


Fifth " 


u a 


Sixth " 


(( u 


Seventh " 


(< u 


Eighth » 


a a 


Einth " 


U (( 



15 to 


20 


00 


u 


120 


20 


u 


135 


00 


u 


115 


60 


a 


80 


50 


u 


60 


35 


(( 


40 


15 


u 


20 


1 


(( 


10 »» 



Dr. Duncan, in summing up the results of an ex- 
tended collection of statistics relating to births, shows 
that a similar law prevails among women. While 
those under twenty years of age are less fecund than 
those between twenty and twenty-four, a gradual in- 
crease in productiveness is made to the age of thirty 
years, which is the most prolific age, after which a 
rapid decrease in fertility takes place.'' 

The influence of diminished fecundity in young 
mothers upon their offspring, that necessarily inherit 
tlie same peculiarity, would tend to predispose to bar- 
renness and sterility in the breed or family in which 
early breeding is frequently practised ; while the de- 
fective development of the mother, arising from the 
same cause, would become a constitutional peculiarity 
in the offspring. 

As the retarded development of the mother and 
the defective condition of the germ or egg are both 
the result of immaturity, and a consequent deficiency 
in constitutional vigor, which, as we have seen, will 
undoubtedly be transmitted, they must have a marked 



* " Poultry-Breeding," p. 27. 

' Dr. Duncan, " Fecundity, Fertility, and Sterility," as quoted in 



Walford's "Insurance Cyclopeedia," vol. iii., p. 194. 



HEREDITY OF DISEASES. 39 

influence in producing conditions of the system that 
predispose to disease/ 

^ In addition to authorities quoted, see Duckham's " Lecture on 
Hereford Cattle," p. 5; Youatt on "Cattle," p. 626; Youatt on "The 
Horse," p. 221. According to the observations of Livingston Stone on 
the McCloud River, California, " 14,000,000 eggs obtained from ripe 
but relatively young and smaller salmon were, without exception, at 
least one-third smaller than the millions of eggs which were before ob- 
tained from older, larger salmon of the same species." (" Fisheries 
Report," 1878 ; " Nature," xxvii., p. 303.) 



CHAPTEE TV. 

HEEEDITT OF ACQUIRED AND ABNOEMAL CHAEACTEES. 

The habits and characteristics of animals that have 
been developed by the conditions in which they are 
placed, or the peculiar training they have received at 
the hands of man, appear to be transmitted from gen- 
eration to generation, with nearly the same certainty 
and nnif ormity as those that characterize the original 
type or species from which they are descended. 

Some of the most striking illustrations of this form 
of heredity are to be found in the transmission of the 
highly-artificial peculiarities that characterize the vari- 
ous improved breeds of animals. The tendency to 
lay on fat rapidly and to mature early is inherited in 
the best families of the Short-horns — ^the Devons, the 
Herefords, and other meat-producing breeds — while 
the ability to secrete an abundant supply of milk is, 
in like manner, perpetuated in the Ayrshires, the Jer- 
seys, and other dairy breeds. 

The certainty with which these acquired qualities 
are transmitted constitutes one of the most valuable 
peculiarities of a breed. 

The American trotting -horse furnishes another 
illustration of the inlieritance of acquired characters. 

The various breeds of dogs have peculiarities that 



ACQUIRED AND ABNORMAL CHARACTERS. 41 

have been developed bj a long course of training, 
wbich are transmitted with a nniformity that is sur- 
prising. Young setters, pointers, and retrievers, that 
have never been in the field, will often " work " with 
as much steadiness and ability as those that have had 
a long experience in sporting. 

In such cases, however, it will be found that the 
ancestors, immediate or remote, have been well trained 
in their special methods of hunting. 

The shepherd-dog is remarkable for its sagacity 
and the persistence with which it carries out the 
wishes of its master ; and it would be difficult, if not 
impossible, to train dogs of any other breeds to equal 
them in their special duties. The greyhound runs by 
sight, and the blood-hound by scent, and their offspring 
all inherit the same peculiarities. 

" The curious fact was observed by Mr. Knight, 
that the young of a breed of springing spaniels which 
had been trained for several successive generations te 
find woodcocks seemed to know as well as the old 
dogs what degree of frost would drive the birds to 
seek their food in unfrozen springs and rills." ^ 

" A new instinct has also become hereditary in a 
mongrel race of dogs employed by the inhabitants of 
the banks of the Magdalena almost exclusively in 
hunting the white-lipped peccary. The address of 
these dogs consists in restraining their ardor and at- 
taching themselves to no individual in particular, but 
keeping the whole in check. ITow, among these dogs 
some are found which, the very first time they are 
taken to the woods, are acquainted with this mode of 

* Carpenter's " Mental Physiology," p. 104. 
3 



42 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDIXG. 

attack, whereas a dog of another breed starts forward 
at once, is surrounded by the peccaries, and, whatever 
may be his strength, is destroyed in a moment." ^ 

'' A race of dogs employed for hunting deer in the 
platform of Santa Fe, in Mexico, is distinguished by 
the peculiar mode in which they attack their game. 
This consists in seizing the animal by the belly and 
overturning it by a sudden effort, taking advantage 
of the moment when the body of the deer rests only 
upon the forelegs, the weight of the animal thus 
thrown being often six times that of its antagonist. 
E'ow, the dog of pure breed inherits a disposition to 
this kind of chase, and never attacks a deer from 
before while running ; and even should the deer, 
not perceiving him, come directly upon him, the dog 
steps aside, and makes his assault upon the flank. On 
the other hand, European dogs, though of superior 
strength and general sagacity, are destitute of this 
instinct, and, for want of similar precautions, they 
are often killed by the deer on the spot, the cervical 
vertebrae being dislocated by the violence of the 
shock."' 

Mr. Lewes "had a pnppy taken from its mother 
at six weeks old, who, although never taught to ' beg * 
(an accomplishment his mother had been taught), 
spontaneously took to begging for everything he 
wanted, when about seven or eight months old ; he 
would beg for food, beg to be let out of the room, 
and one day was found opposite a rabbit-hutch, 

^ " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. iv., p. 1303 ; Car- 
penter's " Comparative Physiology," p. 627. 

* " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. iv., p. 1303. 



ACQUIEED AND ABNORMAL CHARACTERS. 43 

apparently begging the rabbits to come out and 
play." ■ 

A dog, owned by myself several years ago, inher- 
ited the same accomplishment from his mother, who 
had been trained to sit in an erect position and hold a 
stick in imitation of a soldier with a musket. 

This dog was taken from his mother when but a 
few days old, and before it had an opportunity of 
learning any tricks by imitation. Without any train- 
ing, when a few months old, he assumed the erect 
position whenever anything was wanted, and, if that 
did not attract attention, he would " speak," with a 
short bark, as his mother had been in the habit of doing. 

Dr. H. B. Shank, of Lansing, informs me that a 
cat, owned by him, had learned to open doors that 
were secured with a latch, and all of her descendants 
inherited the same peculiarity ; while another family 
of cats, brought up with them, did not learn the trick, 
although they had sufficient intelligence to ask the 
assistance of their more expert friends when they 
wanted a door opened. 

Girou de Buzarringues reports the frequently- 
quoted case of " a man who had the habit, when in 
bed, of lying on his back and crossing the right leg 
over the left. One of his daughters had the same 
habit from birth, and constantly assumed that position 
in the cradle." ' 

Darwin reports the interesting case of a boy who 
"had the singular habit, when pleased, of rapidly 

* Herbert Spencer, " Principles of Biology," vol. i., p. 247 ; Goodale, 
"Principles of Breeding," p. 26. 

3 Quoted from Ribot on " Heredity," p. 8. 



44 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

moving his fingers parallel to each other, and, when 
mnch excited, of raising both hands, with the fingers 
still moving, to the sides of his face on a level with the 
ejes ; this boy, when almost an old man, could hardly 
resist this trick when mnch pleased, but, from its ab- 
surdity, concealed it. He had eight children. Of 
these a girl, when pleased, at the age of four and a 
haK years moved her fingers exactly in the same way, 
and, what is still odder, when much excited she raised 
both her hands, with her fingers still moving, to the 
sides of her face, in exactly the same manner as her 
father had done, and sometimes still continued to do 
when alone." * 

The handwriting of members of the same family 
is said to frequently present a marked resemblance ; 
"and it has been asserted that English boys, when 
taught to wi'ite in France, naturally cling to their 
English manner of writing." ^ 

" There are families in which the special use of 
the left hand is hereditary. Girou mentions a family 
in which the father, the children, and most of the 
grandchildren, were left-handed. One of the latter 
betrayed its left-handedness from earliest infancy, nor 
could it be broken of the habit, though the left hand 
was bound and swathed." ' 

Dr. Eugene Dupuy states that "he owed to his 
friend Dr. Gibney the opportunity of observing a 
family consisting of father and mother, ^yg children, 
and one grandchild. 

* "Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. iL, p. 16. 
' Ibid. ; Ribot on "Heredity," p. 9. 
'Ibid., p. 38. 



ACQUIRED AND ABNORMAL CHARACTERS. 45 

" The father and mother were semi-ambidextrous. 
All the children and the grandchild are ambidextroiis 
to an annoying degree ; all of the movements which 
they perform with one hand are simultaneously per- 
formed by the other hand. The girls are obliged to 
use only one hand when dressing themselves, or when 
cutting patterns, and hold the other hand down by 
their side, because the two hands perform the same 
movements at the same time, and would interfere 
with each other. 

" Attention was called to the fact that the father 
of the grandchild is not semi-ambidextrous. 

"Dr. Dupuy has made experiments upon these 
persons, and has found that, if the skin of the fore- 
arm on one side be kept well dry, and a rapidly-inter- 
rupted electrical current be used, so as only to call 
forth reflex actions, it is possible to induce synchro- 
nous movements in the fingers of both hands, and also 
muscular contraction in the lumbricales muscles of the 
fingers, which are too rapid to be carried on by the 
will."* 

Wild animals, living on islands not often visited 
by man, do not fear him, but allow the closest ap- 
proach without hesitation. 

"When the Falkland Islands were first visited by 
man, the large, wolf -like dog {Canis antarcticics) fear- 
lessly came to meet Byron's sailors, who, mistaking 
this ignorant curiosity for ferocity, ran into the water 
to avoid them. Even recently, a man, by holding a 
piece of meat in one hand and a knife in the other, 

^ " Proceedings of the American Neurological Association," in the 
Virginia Medical Monthly, August, IS*?*?, p. 392. 



46 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

could sometimes stick them at night. On an island 
in the sea of Aral, when first discovered by Butakoff, 
the saigak antelopes, which are ' generally very timid 
and watchful, did not fly from us, but, on the con- 
trary, looked at us with a sort of curiosity.' 

" So, again, on the shores of the Mauritius, the 
manatee was not, at first, in the least afraid of man, 
and thus it has been in several quarters of the world 
with seals and the morse. I have shown elsewhere 
how slowly the native birds of several islands have 
acquired and inherited a salutary dread of man; at 
the Galapagos Archipelago I pushed, with the muzzle 
of my gun, hawks from a branch, and held out a 
pitcher of water for other birds to alight on and drink. 

" Quadrupeds and birds which have seldom been 
disturbed by man, dread him no more than do our 
English birds, the cows, or horses, grazing in the 
fields."^ 

Dr. Kidder, in his description of the " sheath-bill " 
{CMonis minor\ on Kerguelen Island, says, "When I 
sat down upon a rock and kept perfectly still for a 
few moments, they crowded around me like a mob of 
street boys around an organ-grinder," and " all seemed 
perfectly fearless and trustful." ^ 

That the descendants of such animals, inheriting 
the accumulated experience of their ancestors, become 
wild, is shown in the instinctive dread of man exhib- 
ited by the young of the same and allied species that 
are frequently brought into contact with him. G. 

* Darwin's " Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. i., p. 
33 ; Carpenter's " Mental Physiology," p. 90. 

* The Popular Science MontMy, April, ISYe, p. 661. 



ACQUIRED AND ABNORMAL CHARACTERS. 47 

Leroy observes that " in districts where a sharp war is 
waged against the fox, the cubs, on first coming out 
of their earths, and before they can have acquired any 
experience, are more cautious, crafty, and suspicious, 
than are the old foxes in places where no attempt is 
made to trap them." 

" Knight, who for sixty years devoted himself to 
systematic observation of this class of facts, says that 
during that time the habits of the English woodcock 
underwent great changes, and that its fear of man was 
considerably increased by its transmission through sev- 
eral generations. 

" The same author discovered similar changes of 
habit, even in bees." * 

The marked heredity of habits has led some mod- 
ern writers to claim that the instincts of animals are 
but the experiences of past generations, that are ac- 
cumulated and established through inheritance. Many 
of the most valuable characteristics of the various im- 
proved breeds of animals have been produced by the 
inheritance of habits of the system, arising from the 
conditions and treatment to which they have been 
subjected. 

The remarkable records recently made by the 
American trotting-horse are the result of training and 
inheritance." 

The dairy breeds of cattle inherit a marked func- 

^ Ribot on " Heredity," p. 17. 

2 The first trotting-match in America was made in 1818, for a stake 
of $1,000, against time. It was won by a horse called Boston Blue, in 
the then unprecedented time of three minutes (" The Horse in Amer- 
ica," by Herbert, vol. ii., p. 133). 



48 PKINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDma 

tional activity of the lacteal glands, which is biit a 
modified habit of the system. 

Pritchard, in his " J^atural History of Man," states 
that the peculiar ambling pace to which the horses 
bred on the table-lands of the Cordilleras are trained, 
has, by inheritance, resulted in a " race in which the 
ambling pace is natural and requires no teaching." 

The ISTorwegian ponies, descended from animals 
that " have been in the habit of obeying the voice of 
their riders and not the bridle," are said to inherit the 
same peculiarity, so that it is difficult to break them 
to drive in the ordinary way.^ 

The habit of migration at particular seasons of the 
year is inherited, and I have often observed it in mal- 
lard ducks bred for several generations in a state of 
domestication. 

It must be admitted, however, that acquired habits 
are not in all cases hereditary, but it would be diffi- 
cult, perhaps, in the present state of our knowledge 
of the subject, to 'Q.x a Hmit to their inheritance, so 
far, at least, as a predisposition is concerned. 

Acquired habits and the original traits of animals 
appear to be conflicting elements in their constitution, 
either one of which may, from its intensity, predomi- 
nate in hereditary transmission. 

Pigs have been taught to point game and to per- 
form various tricks, but, in the hereditary transmission 
of their characters, " I^ature " has had a stronger in- 
fluence than " culture." 

^ The last two statements are quoted from Goodale's " Principles of 
Breeding," p. 25. JSee also " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," 
vol. iv., p. 1313. 



ACQUIRED AND ABNORMAL CHARACTERS. 49 

Carpenter, in discussing the heredity of acquired 
habits, says, " There seems to be reason to believe that 
such hereditary transmission is limited to acquired 
peculiarities which are simply modifications of the 
natural constitution of the race, and would not extend 
to such as may be altogether foreign to it." ^ 

From a practical point of view, however, the in- 
heritance of acquired characters, so far as they are of 
any value, is, fortunately, without any apparent limit. 

Abnormal characters are frequently hereditary, 
but they are not so likely to be transmitted as acquired 
habits that are in harmony with the original peculiari- 
ties of the animal. 

The following examples will sufficiently illustrate 
this form of inheritance : 

Gratio Kelleia, the Maltese, " was born with six 
fingers upon each hand, and a like number of toes to 
each of his feet." He " married when he was twenty- 
two years of age, and, as I suppose there were no six- 
fingered ladies in Malta, he married an ordinary five- 
fingered person. 

" The result of that marriage was four children : the 
first, Salvator, had six fingers and toes, like his father ; 
the second was George, who had five fingers and five 
toes, but one of them was deformed, showing a ten- 
dency to variation ; the third was Andre — he had five 
fingers and five toes, quite perfect ; the fourth was a 
girl, Marie — she had five fingers and five toes, but her 
thumbs were deformed, showing a tendency toward 
the sixth. These children grew up, and, when they 
came to adult years, they all married, and of course it 

1 " Mental Physiology," p. 104. 



50 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

happened that they all married five-fingered and five- 
toed persons. ISTow let us see what were the results. 
Salvator had four children — they were two boys, a 
girl, and another boy — the first two boys and the girl 
were six-fingered and six-toed like their grandfather ; 
the fourth boy had only five fingers and toes. 

" George had only four children ; there were two 
girls with six fingers and six toes ; there was one girl 
with six fingers and five toes on the right side, and 
-B.Ye fingers and 'Q.Ye toes on the left side, so that she 
was half-and-haK. The last, a boy, had '&^ve fingers 
and five toes. The third, Andre, you will recollect, 
was perfectly well formed, and he had many children 
whose hands and feet were all regularly developed. 

"Marie, the last, who of course married a man 
who had only five fingers, had four children : the first, 
a boy, was born with six toes, but the other three were 
normal." ^ 

" In a paper contributed to the Edinburgh New 
Philosophical Journal^ for July, 1863, Dr. Struthers 
gives several cases of hereditary digital variations. 
Esther P , who had six fingers on one hand, be- 
queathed this maKormation along some lines of her 
descendants, for two, three, and four generations. 

A — — S inherited an extra digit on each hand 

and each foot, from his father; and C G ^ 

who also had six fingers and six toes, had an aunt and 
a grandmother similarly formed." ' 

A deficiency in the number of fingers, or in the 
number of the phalanges or joints of the fingers and 

* Huxley on " The Origin of Species," p. 92. 

' Herbert Spencer's "Principles of Biology," vol. i., p. 243. 



ACQUIRED AND ABNORMAL CHARACTERS. 51 

toes, may likewise be transmitted, as shown in the 
following cases from Mr. Sedgwick's paper on the 
" Influence of Sex in Hereditary Disease : " 

A pastry-cook at Donai, named Augnstin Dnforet, 
had but two phalanges to all his fingers and toes. 
This defect he inherited from his grandfather, who 
had three children with the same malformation ; the 
eldest of them (a son) had three sons all with the same 
defect ; the second (a daughter) has had ^ve children, 
two daughters with three phalanges, and three sons 
who have only two ; the third, who is the father of 
Augustin, had eleven children, ^Ye daughters normal- 
ly formed, and six sons, in all of whom there is a pha- 
lanx wanting in both fingers and toes. 

The mother of Augustin also had two male, still- 
born children, with the same deformity. 

Dr. Lepine reports the case of a man who had 
only three fingers on each hand, and four toes on each 
foot ; his grandfather and son had likewise the same 
deformity. 

Bechet records the case of a woman (Yictorie 
Barre) " who, instead of hands, had on each arm one 
finger only, the other fingers and their metacarpal 
bones, with the exception of imperfect rudiments of 
two of the latter, being entirely wanting ; while on 
each foot there were but two toes, apparently the first 
and fifth, but both very defective. She was twice 
married : by her first marriage she had a healthy and 
regularly-formed male child, and by her second mar- 
riage two daughters maKormed like herself ; and her 
sister and father were also deformed in a similar man- 



52 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

Another case is on record of the " hereditary ab- 
sence of the two distal phalanges," in which "the 
transmission of the defect for ten generations had 
been effected by the females only of the family." ^ 

A supernumerary organ, when inherited, may oc- 
cupy a different position from that observed in the 
parent, as in the case of a woman with three nipples, 
published by Adrien de Jussieu. " The additional nip- 
ple was placed in the groin, and served ordinarily for 
suckling, while in the mother of this woman, who was 
born also with three nipples, they were all placed on 
the anterior region of the thorax." ' 

The fifth toe of Dorking fowls, which is one of 
the characteristics of the breed, has been inherited, it 
is claimed, from a five-toed variety introduced into 
Britain by the Romans. Whether this is true or not, 
it is now impossible to determine, but the constancy 
of this peculiarity, even in the produce of other breeds 
crossed with the Dorking, would seem to indicate that 
it is a character which has been fixed by long-con- 
tinued inheritance.^ 

In the Houdan fowls, when first introduced into 
England from France, a fifth toe was rarely seen ; but 
at the present time it is nearly as constant in this 
breed as in the Dorkings.* 

Mr. "Wright says : " The abnormal structure of the 
Dorking foot is very apt to run into still more abnor- 

* British and Foreign Medico- ChirurgicalBeview, April, 1863, p. 460. 
8 Ibid., July, 1863, p. 172. 

3 Wright on "Poultry," pp. 311, 312; Darwin's "Animals and 
Plants under Domestication," vol. ii., p. 24. 

4 Wright on " Poultry," p. 412. 



ACQUIRED AND ABNORMAL CHARACTERS. 53 

mal forms, which, disqualify otherwise fine birds for 
the show-pen. Birds are not unfrequently produced 
which possess three back-toes, or have an extra toe 
high up on the leg ; or, in the case of the cock, with 
supernumerary spurs, which have been known to grow 
in every possible direction." * 

This tendency to an increase in the development 
of an abnormal character that has become hereditary 
has been observed in other cases, but we are as yet 
unable to present a satisfactory explanation of them. 
In the case of the Dorking, the practice of breeding 
only those birds that have the abnormal peculiarity 
might be expected to intensify the tendency to its 
production, by making it a dominant character ; but, 
in the following case given by Dr. Struthers, it will 
be safe to presume that only one parent had the ab- 
normal character, and yet we find the same tendency 
to its increase. " In the first generation an additional 
digit appeared on one hand, in the second on both 
hands, in the third three brothers had both hands, and 
one of the brothers a foot, affected ; and in the fourth 
generation all four limbs were affected." ' 

" In a family," says Sir H. Holland, " where the 
father had a singular elongation of the upper eyelid, 
seven or eight children were bom with the same de- 
formity, two or three other children having it not." ' 

Dr. Osborne reports the case of " John Murphy, 

» Wright on " Poultry," p. 331. 

* Quoted in Darwin's " Animals and Plants under Domestication," 
vol. ii., p. 23. 

^"Philosophical Transactions," 1814, p. 91; quoted in Darwin's 
" Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. ii., p. 17. 



54 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

aged fiftj-two years, a native of County "Wexford 
(Ireland), wlio had fifteen brothers and five sisters, all 
of whom possessed the family peculiarity of tortoise- 
shell-colored eyes. The inheritance was derived from 
the mother, whose maiden name was Murray. She 
had three sisters and one brother, who were all simi- 
larly affected, and who inherited the peculiarity from 

their mother, whose maiden name was F . It is 

to this latter family that the peculiarity belongs, inso- 
much that in the part of the country where they re- 
sided they have been commonly recognized by this 
distinction, and celebrated for communicating it to 
their posterity." In this case, for three generations 
"the transmission of the defect has been restricted 
exclusively to the female sex." * 

" In the year 1770, as we learn from D'Azara, a 
hornless bull was produced in Paraguay, which has 
been the progenitor of a race of hornless cattle that 
has since multiplied extensively in that country." ' 

The polled breeds of Great Britain undoubtedly 
had a similar origin. 

According to Dr. Bandall, " a ram having ears of 
not more than a quarter of the usual size appeared in 
a flock of Saxon sheep in Germany. He was a supe- 
rior animal, and got valuable stock. These were in- 
terbred, and a ' httle-eared ' sub-family created. Some 
of these found their way into the United States, be- 
tween 1824 and 1828. One of the rams came into 

* British and Foreign Medico- Chirurgical Review^ April, 1861, p. 
248. The case was originally published in the Dublin Medical Journal 
for 1835. 

' "Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. iv., p. 1311. 



ACQUIRED AND ABNORMAL CHARACTERS. 55 

Onondaga County, 'New York. He was a choice ani- 
mal, and his owner, David Ely, valued his small ears 
as a distinctive mark of his blood. 

" He bred a flock by him, and gradually almost 
bred off their ears entirely. 

" His flock enjoyed great celebrity and popularity 
in its day, but has long been broken up, and many 
years have doubtless elapsed since any of the sur- 
rounding sheep-owners have used a ' little-eared ' ram ; 
yet nearly every flock that retains a drop of that blood 
— even coarse-mutton sheep bred away from it, prob- 
ably for ten or fifteen generations, insomuch that all 
Saxon characteristics have totally disappeared — still 
continues to throw out an occasional lamb as distinctly 
marked with the precise peculiarity under considera- 
tion as Mr. Ely's original stock." ^ 

The "Ancon" or "Otter" breed of sheep, that 
originated in Massachusetts in 1Y91, were character- 
ized by the length of their bodies and the " extreme 
shortness of the legs, which also turned out in such a 
manner as to render them rickety. They cannot run 
or jump, and even walk with difficulty." ' 

This deformed breed is said to be descended from 

» "Practical Shepherd," p. 104. 

* These sheep were described by Colonel Humphreys, in the " Philo- 
sophical Transactions," London, 1813, p. 88, according to Darwin 
("Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. i., p. 126), who states 
that this breed had their origin on the farm of Seth Wright, in Massa- 
chusetts. 

Chancellor Livingston, in his "Essay on Sheep," 1813, p. 37, from 
which the description above is quoted, says, " The Otter sheep, it is 
said, were first discovered on some island on our Eastern coast, where, 
I cannot precisely say, and from thence they have spread to the adjoin- 
ing States." 



56 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

a ram in which the malformation was congenital. It 
is stated, on the authority of Colonel Humphreys, that 
this defect became so fixed by inheritance that it was 
uniformly transmitted. 

The I^iata cattle, on the northern bank of the 
Plata, described by Darwin, have a pecuKar malfor- 
mation of the skull, that undoubtedly has been devel- 
oped by the inheritance of a deformity of some of the 
ancestors. 

In this breed "the forehead is very short and 
broad, with the nasal end of the skuU, together with 
the whole plane of the upper molar teeth, curved up- 
ward. The lower jaw projects beyond the upper, and 
has a corresponding upward curvature." * 

A very singular abnormal peculiarity is hereditary 
in some families of pigs — the tail, which is perfectly 
formed at birth, having a tendency to waste away and 
drop off when the animals are a few weeks old." 

Cases are reported of families with a single lock 
of hair of a different color from the rest of the hair, 
which in one generation may be upon the right side, 
and in the next on the left.^ 

A family of my acquaintance have several abnor- 
mal peculiarities that are transmitted with great uni- 
formity. The little toes lap over the adjoining toes, 
and the nails have a longitudinal groove that gives 
them a bifid termination, so that when the nail is 
trimmed the part cut off is in two pieces. This same 
character of the nail is seen also on the index-fingers. 

^ "Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. i., p. 113. 
^ Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society^ vol. xvi., p. 41. 
* "Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. ii., p. 14. 



ACQUIRED AND ABNORMAL CHARACTERS. 57 

In addition to these peculiarities, a cartilaginous pro- 
jection on the back of the ear is inherited. The pa- 
ternity of an illegitimate child, in one instance, was 
traced to this family, from its inheritance of the pecu- 
liarities above-mentioned. 

Dr. Anderson says a gentleman of his acquaintance 
" chanced to find a rabbit among his breed that had 
only one ear ; he watched the progeny of that creature, 
and among these he found one of the opposite sex that 
had only one ear also ; he paired these two one-eared 
rabbits together, and has now a breed of rabbits with 
one ear only, which propagate as fast, and as steadily 
produce their like, as the two-eared rabbits from which 
they originally were descended." ^ 

The same author gives the case of a bitch that was 
born with only three legs. " She has had several lit- 
ters of puppies, and among these several individuals 
were produced that had the same defect with herself." ' 

He also states that " a cat belonging to Dr. Coven- 
try, of Edinburgh, which had no blemish at its birth, 
lost its tail by accident when it was young. 

" It has had many litters of kittens, and in every 
one of these there was one or more of the litter that 
wanted the tail, either in whole or in part." ' 

" Blumenbach afiirms that ' a man whose little- 
finger of the right hand had been nearly demolished 
and set awry had several sons, all of whom had the 
little fingers of the right hand crooked.' " * 

^ " Recreations in Agriculture," vol. i., p. 68. 
5 Loc, cit, p. 68. 3 ibid.^ p. 69. 

* As quoted in the British and Foreign Medico- Cliirurgical Review^ 
April, 1863, p. 462. 



58 PRINCIPLES GF STOCK-BREEDING. 

In his experiments with Guinea-pigs, Dr. Brown- 
Sequard observed that, in those subjected to a particu- 
lar operation, involving a portion of the spinal cord 
or sciatic nerve, " a slight pinching of the skin of the 
face would throw the animals into a kind of epileptic 
convulsion. "When these epileptic Guinea-pigs bred 
together, their offspring showed the same predisposi- 
tion, without having been themselves subjected to any 
lesion whatever ; while no such tendency showed itself 
in any of the large number of young which were bred 
from parents that had not been operated on." ^ 

Prof. Tanner says he knew " a very striking in- 
stance of the loss of milk in a flock (previously cele- 
brated for their supply of milk) being traced entirely 
to the use of a very well-formed ram, bred from a ewe 
singularly deficient in milk." ^ 

It is stated on good authority that animals that 
have been " branded " in the same place for several 
successive generations, transmit the same mark to their 
oftspring." ' 

From the many cases of inherited habits and ab- 
normal peculiarities on record, we have quoted a suffi- 
cient number to show the great variety of such charac- 
ters that are liable to be transmitted. 

In a large proportion of cases it must be admitted 
that the abnormal peculiarities of parents are not ob- 
served in the offspring, and it has been claimed from 

^ Carpenter's " Mental Physiology," p. 371 ; Darwin's "Animals and 
Plants under Domestication," vol. ii., p. 36 ; Herbert Spencer's " Biol- 
ogy," vol. L, p. 251. 

* Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society^ vol. xxii., p. 5. 

' " Encyclopedic Pratique de I'Agriculteur," tome viii., p. 678 ; 
Goodale's " Principles of Breeding," p. 26. 



ACQUIRED AND ABNORMAL CHARACTERS. 59 

this fact that they have not been transmitted. From 
the cases presented in the following chapter, however, 
it will readily be seen that the non-inheritance of a 
character can only be determined by an exhaustive ex- 
amination of the individuals in the collateral branches 
of the family, as well as those in the direct line of de- 
scent. If a character does not make its appearance in 
a particular instance, it does not necessarily follow that 
it has not been inherited, as it may be obscured or 
made latent by the presence of some other character 
that for the time is dominant in the organization. 

The heredity of acquired habits and abnormal pe- 
culiarities should not be considered as exceptional, but 
rather the result of some general law of the organiza- 
tion that is constant in its action, and the supposed 
cases of non-inheritance of a character will in all prob- 
ability be found to be in accordance with it. 

It has been supposed that the transmission of func- 
tional peculiarities of an organ involved the transmis- 
sion of some corresponding structural change of the 
organization, that gave rise to the abnormal modifica- 
tion of its function. 

There are cases, however, in which a well-marked 
functional derangement of certain organs, originally 
produced by an injury to the nervous system, has be- 
come hereditary, without the transmission of any ap- 
parent malformation of the nerves themselves. Dr. 
Eugene Dupuy has given some interesting illustrations 
of this singular form of heredity, some of which he 
observed as the assistant of Dr. Brown-Sequard, in his 
experiments on Guinea-pigs, already noticed, while 
others are the result of his own investigations. 



60 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

" If in a Guinea-pig, for instance," says Dr. Dupuy, 
"that portion of the vaso-motor branch (of nerves) 
which is in connection with the carotid artery in the 
neck — which, therefore, regulates the blood-supply of 
some part of the brain, of the ear, of the face, and of 
the eye — ^be divided, or, better still, if the ganglion 
from which that branch springs be removed, we see 
that the entire half of the head of the animal, on the 
side on which the operation has been performed, be- 
comes hotter, and, on examining more closely, we dis- 
cover that the increase of heat is due to the fact that 
the blood-vessels allow more blood to pass through 
them, that the nutrition of the parts is increased, and 
therefore the heat also increases ; and we see that the 
upper eyelid of the animal drops a little, being in a 
state of hypersemia — that is, its capillaries are dis- 
tended — that the secretion of tears is increased, so 
that the eye is wet, that the pupil of the eye is con- 
tracted, because of more blood in the ciliary system, 
etc. 

" The ear also becomes hotter, and, if the animal is 
white, we can see that the ear which before was white, 
with some blood-vessels stretching across, is now be- 
come red, and presents a rich network of capillaries, 
which have become apparent, being of enlarged calibre, 
l^ow, all these phenomena may disappear after a while, 
except a few. The eye always remains smaller, ah 
though the blood-supply of the eyelid is more regu- 
lated ; the pupil remains a httle contracted and the 
secretion of tears continues, and also the nictitant 
membrane remains in a congested state. 'No matter 
how long the animal lives, that state of the eye per- 



ACQUIRED AND ABNORMAL CHARACTERS. 61 

sists, and, when the animal dies, or is sacrificed, it is 
seen that this eyeball is smaller than its fellow. 

" If, now, such an animal were allowed to breed 
with another, whether operated npon in the same 
manner or not, it would be seen that young which are 
born apparently perfectly healthy present, a few days 
after birth, all the phenomena observed in their 
changed parent or parents. They have the same 
smaller eyes, but on both sides, the same ear thick- 
ened and enlarged, etc. 

" The only phenomena which they do not show are 
those which have been transient — the increased heat 
and the increased sensation which depended upon the 
increased amount of blood present, etc. Those young 
can be made to breed in-and-in for several genera- 
tions. I have watched them for five generations, and 
always the same characteristics will be discovered in 
the young." 

" If, now, an examination is made of the parent, 
the first one, it will be seen that the nerve that had 
been sectioned, or its ganglion which had been extir- 
pated, is not regenerated ; while, if an autopsy is made 
of one of the offspring of any of the subsequent gen- 
erations, it is seen that they all possess the nerve and 
the ganglion intact. The acutest or most minute mi- 
croscopic examinations do not discover any difference 
between their structure and those of other animals of 
the same family and species." * 

In these cases the permanent modifications of the 
eye and face, resulting from the injury to the nervous 
system, are entailed upon the offspring, while the 

* Popular Science Monthly^ July, 1877, pp. 333, 334. 



62 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

nerves that have been mutilated are transmitted in 
their original integrity. 

The following cases, given hj Dr. Dupuy, are of 
particular interest from the series of changes repeated 
in the offspring that have not apparently inherited the 
original lesion of the nervous system that produced 
them: 

" If a puncture be made into that portion of the 
upper part of the spinal cord which anatomists call 
the restiform body, in Guinea-pigs, it will be seen that 
the animal presents at once an increased vascularity 
of the ear on the corresponding side ; the ear becomes 
gorged with blood, chiefly toward the periphery; 
sometimes, in a very short time, indeed, that portion 
of the ear falls off, destroyed by dry gangrene. 

" I have the record of a case in which the ear was 
thus partially destroyed in less than nine hours. The 
eye on the same side becomes larger and protrudes ; 
it protrudes first, and becomes larger in the course of 
time. If a pair of Guinea-pigs thus operated upon be 
allowed to breed, and even if only one parent is thus 
diseased, the other being healthy, when young are 
born these young always present the phenomena ob- 
served in the parents; but the phenomena just de- 
scribed only come shortly after their birth. 

" It is seen that their eyeballs increase in size and 
protrude from their sockets; their ears after a few 
days become diseased, just like those of the parents, 
the subjects of experimentation, and drop off, eaten 
by dry gangrene. 

"When the parent or parents are sacrificed, and 
their restiform bodies are examined microscopically, 



ACQUIRED AND ABNORMAL CHARACTERS. 63 

notliing is detected but a cicatrix in the envelopes of 
the spinal cord, which appears a little thickened at 
that point ; but the nervous tissue itself does not dif- 
fer apparently from surrounding elements of the same 
nature and structure. 

" If an examination is also made of one of the 
young, nothing at all is discovered. 

" These young can be allowed to breed in-and-in, 
and always the same phenomena will be observed in 
each subsequent generation. 

" I have sometimes noticed that if a male or a fe- 
male belonging to any one of the successive genera- 
tions is allowed to breed with another healthy animal, 
very generally some of the young present the same 
hereditary peculiarities. I have followed animals thus 
operated upon through seven generations." ^ 

In the experiments of Dr. Brown-Sequard with 
Guinea-pigs, it was found that an injury of the spinal 
cord, or of the sciatic nerve, produced a change in 
sensation over a certain well-defined area of the face, 
in addition to the epileptic affection already referred 
to. "When the sciatic nerve was the seat of the injury 
the outer part of the foot was likewise destroyed, 
leaving but one toe, the inner, on the foot of the in- 
jured side, and this deformity is a permanent one. 

When the animals recover from the epileptic affec- 
tion, as they do after several months, " all the phe- 
nomena observed about the zone of skin in the neck 
and face recur in the reverse order ; that is to say, all 
the different sensations return by degrees, at the same 
time that the hair of the region falls, and new hair 

» Popular Science Monthly, July, 18YY, pp. 334, 335. 



64: PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

grows gradually. The fits become simple convulsions, 
then mere twitchings, and lastly the animal can no 
longer be distinguished from another healthy one, but 
by the fact that it has only one toe at one of its hind- 
legs, when the operation has been performed on the 
sciatic nerve ; and nothing whatever remains when 
the origin of the disease was a prick in the spinal 
cord." ' 

The young of these epileptic Guinea-pigs are bom 
apparently healthy, with the exception of those from 
parents that had been subjected to the injury of the 
sciatic nerve, and they have but one toe on one of the 
hind-feet. "When these apparently healthy animals 
are two or more months old they gradually become 
affected with epilepsy, and the same area on the face 
and neck passes through the same series of changes in 
the development and cure of the affaction that had 
been observed in their parents. " "We see the gradual 
increase of the affection, the diminution of the sensi- 
bility in the zone, just as with the parents, the coming 
of a period of complete attacks of epilepsy, and then 
the loss of hair and the gradual diminution of the 
nervous complaint." ' 

In the original parents, it will be observed that the 
derangement of the nervous system, resulting in con- 
vulsions, was produced by an injury to the spinal cord 
or the sciatic nerve, and, when these injuries had 
healed, the nervous symptoms gradually disappeared, 
the hair is shed from that part of the face affected, and 
gradually replaced, and the cure is complete. 

* Popular Science Montlily^ July, 1877, p. 337. 
" Loc. cit, p. 337. 



ACQUIRED AND ABNORMAL CHARACTERS. 65 

]N"ow, tlie young of these animals that liad recov- 
ered from their injuries are born with a nervous sys- 
tem that is apparently perfect ; and yet, after a time, 
the disease is developed, passes through its peculiar 
stages without apparent cause, and finally disappears. 

The functional derangement of the organization is 
apparently transmitted without being accompanied by 
any anatomical lesions that can be assigned as an ex- 
citing cause. 



CHAPTEE V. 

ATAVISM. 

Ant peculiarity of an ancestor, more or less re- 
mote, whether of form, color, habits, mental traits, or 
predisposition to disease, may make its appearance in 
the offspring without having been observed in the 
parents. 

This form of heredity, technically termed atavism 
(from atavus, an ancestor), is called reversion by Mr. 
Darwin, and it has for a long time been recognized 
by breeders, under a variety of names, as " throwing 
back," " crying back," " breeding back," etc. 

It will, perhaps, be better to retain the term ata- 
vism, which has been so generally in use to indicate 
this class of cases, as it does not involve in its signifi- 
cation any theoretical explanation of the phenomena. 

Some of the cases cited in the preceding pages, to 
illustrate other phases of the great law of heredity, are 
likewise examples of atavism, and we shall find also 
in the cases quoted in this connection many illustra- 
tions of topics discussed in other chapters. Of the 
multitude of cases on record of this form of heredity, 
the following will serve to illustrate its leading feat- 
ures. Mr. Darwin states that the following case was 
communicated to him on good authority : " A pointer- 



ATAVISM. 67 

bitch produced seven puppies. Four were marked 
with blue and white, which is so unusual a color with 
pointers that she was thought to have played false 
with one of the greyhounds, and the whole litter was 
condemned ; but the game-keeper was permitted to 
save one as a curiosity. 

" Two years afterward a friend of the owner saw 
the young dog, and declared that he was the image of 
his old pointer-bitch Sappho, the only blue-and-white 
pointer of pure descent which he had ever seen. This 
led to close inquiry, and it was proved that he was the 
great-great-grandson of Sappho ; so that, according to 
the common expression, he had only one-sixteenth of 
her blood in his veins." ^ 

Mr. Tollett, of Betley Hall, crossed his fowls with 
Malays, and, though he attempted to get rid of this 
strain, he gave it up in despair, the Malay characters 
reappearing forty years after the cross was made.' 

Mr. Hewett states that the Eumpless fowls in 
some instances produce young with tail-feathers, but 
that, when three such birds were selected to breed 
from, there was but one chick with a tail out of over 
twenty bred from the trio.' 

Goodale relates an interesting case that occurred 
in the Kennebec Yalley. Many years ago there were 
a few polled cattle in that locality, but they finally 
became extinct. For thirty-five years after the last 
of these polled cattle was killed the cattle on the farm 
of Mr. Wingate all had horns, but, at the end of that 

1 "Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. ii., p. 46. 
' On the authority of Mr. Darwin, he. cit., p. 49. 
3 Tegetmeier's "Poultry-Book," p. 231. 



68 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

time, a polled animal made its appearance in his herd, 
with all the characteristics of the original breed. ^ 

It is stated, on the authority of Mr. Sidney, that 
in a litter of Essex pigs two yonngones appeared with 
marks of the Berkshire that had been used as a cross 
twenty-eight years before.^ 

The occasional appearance of horns in the Gallo- 
way, Suffolk, and other polled breeds that have been 
bred pure for many years, furnishes an illustration of 
the transmission of an original character by atavic 
descent. 

Mr. Sedgwick says, " In the well-known case of 
George III., the insanity was transmitted in the male 
line, by atavic descent from a male ancestor, eight 
generations back, in whom not only the insanity, but 
many other of the well-known characteristics of the 
unfortunate monarch, were exactly repeated." ' 

In the case of a woman with a sixth finger on one 
hand, related by Dr. Struthers, only one out of eigh- 
teen children had an extra finger, and, in this case, 
both hands were affected. One of the sons, James, 
had two sons and seven daughters, all, like himself, 
with the normal number of fingers. One of his 
daughters, however, had a son with six fingers on each 
hand. 

Two generations were thus free from the defect, 
but, when it made its appearance in the next genera- 

* " Principles of Breeding," p. 65. 

' "Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. ii., p. 49 ; from 
Youatt on " The Hog," 1860, p. 27. 

2 British and Foreign Medico- CMrurgical Review^ April, 1863, p. 
467. See also " The Four Georges," by Thackeray, pp. 5, 6, 1861. 



ATAVISM. e9 

tion, the intensity of transmission was increased rather 
than diminished, as both hands were affected instead 
of one, as in the case of the great-great-grandmother.^ 

Dr. Chadbonrne reports a case that came nnder 
his own observation, of two yonng men who were 
cousins, " each of whom had six toes npon his feet." 

]S'either of the parents had the defect, but it was 
a characteristic of the grandparents, and appeared in 
the family a long time before.* 

Mr. Sedgwick, in his article on the " Influence of 
Sex in Hereditary Disease," says, " Siebold records 
the case of a married couple whose fathers were both 
red-headed, but not having red hair themselves, who 
had four sons red-headed, and three daughters whose 
hair was of another color." ' 

In the Short-horn herd-books may be found numer- 
ous instances of the atavic inheritance of color, and 
almost every breeder can furnish from his own expe- 
rience many cases of a similar character. The follow- 
ing is cited as an example of this class of cases : " Mr. 
"Wadsworth owns the twin Princess cows. Lady Mary 
seventh and eighth ; they are both good roans, got by 
fourth Lord of Oxford (5903 " American Herd-Book "), 
a roan bull ; their dam. Lady Mary, a red, got by Hot- 
spur (31393), a roan ; their granddam. Baroness, a red 
roan, got by Barrington (30501), a white ; their great- 
granddam, the imported red Princess cow Ped Rose 
second, got by E'apier (6238), red roan. These twin 
heifers. Lady Mary seventh and eighth, were both 

* Spencer's "Principles of Biology," vol. i., p. 258. 

» "Agricultural Report of Massachusetts," 1866-'67, p. 88. 

^ British and Foreign Medico- Chirurgical Review^ April, 1863, p. 461. 



70 PRINCIPLES OP STOCK-BREEDING. 

served by the Princess bull, Earl of Seabam (8077 
"American Herd-Book"), a good roan, and eacb 
dropped a bull-calf ; but the one from Lady Mary 
seventh was a red^ while the other, from Lady Mary 
eighth, was whiteP ^ 

The late Hon. Charles Rich, of Lapeer, who, when 
a young man, had charge of the merino sheep that 
formed the foundation of what is known as the " Rich 
family of Merinoes," informed me that tan-colored 
ears was a common characteristic of the Spanish me- 
rino sheep at that time, and that it was highly prized 
as an indication of the " blood." Dr. Randall says : 
" These spots were highly characteristic of several of 
the families of merinoes originally imported from 
Spain, and the lambs of some of them were occasion- 
ally covered over the carcass at birth with larger spots 
of the same color, or of a deeper tawny-red. Some- 
times the whole body was thus colored. But all of 
these tints disappeared on the body when the wool 
grew out, and were seen no more." ^ 

These tan-colored spots on the ears and face, and 
also on the body, are now frequently seen in flocks in 
which white ears have been the prevailing character- 
istic for many generations, the original peculiarities of 
the breed being transmitted by atavism. 

The "dark noses," so frequently seen in short- 
horns, are but a repetition of ancestral characteristics 
by atavic descent. 

The following case of atavic transmission of an 
abnormal peculiarity is reported by Mr. Sedgwick, on 

» " The Country Gentleman," 1876, p. 105. 
s " The Practical Shepherd," p. 72, note. 



ATAVISM. 71 

the authority of Dr. Cotton : " A gentleman had, with 
both dentitions, a donble-tooth in place of the left- 
second incisor in the upper jaw ; he was the only one 
in the family of nine children who presented this pe- 
culiarity, which he inherited from his paternal grand- 
father, whom he so exactly resembled, even in the 
form of the hands also, as often to have arrested the 
attention of their acquaintance." ^ 

The same authority says : " Borelli, quoted by 
Rougemont, records the case of a well-made man who 
was three times married, and whose father had been 
lame; the children of this man by his three wives 
were all lame." ^ 

' The following case of skin-disease {ichthyosis)^ re- 
ported by Mr. Sedgwick, illustrates a singular feature 
in the atavic transmission of disease, from the limit of 
the defect to the male sex, while its transmission ap- 
pears to be exclusively limited to females : " It first 
occurred in the grandfather, who is still living, and 
who has the disease in a very severe form ; it did not 
appear in him, or it was not, at least, noticed, till he 
was about seven or eight years old. 

" This man has had three sons and three daughters. 
One son died at the age of ^yq years, and one at the 
age of seven years, both of whom were free from the 
disease. The other son is living and past middle age, 
but has shown no tendency to the disease. The three 
daughters have all lived to grow up and marry, and 
in them likewise the skin is unaffected. Two only of 
the thi-ee daughters have had children. The eldest 
daughter has had four, of whom the first-born, a girl, 

» Loc. cit.^ April, 1863, p. 454. « Ibid., p. 464. 



72 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

has had no appearance of the disease ; the three other 
children are boys, of whom the eldest, aged fourteen 
years, and the youngest, aged nine years, suffer from 
the disease, while the other son, aged eleven years, is 
free from it. 

" The family of the other daughter consists of 
three children, the eldest of whom, aged six years, is, 
as in the former case, a girl, and free from the disease, 
while the two other children, who are boys, aged re- 
spectively three years and one year, have the skin very 
decidedly affected. It is to be noted that the disease, 
in these grandchildren, has in each case appeared 
within a few months after birth." ^ 

A tendency to excessive haemorrhage, from even 
slight injuries, is well known to be hereditary, and 
this to such an extent that " in some families scarcely 
a single male arrives at maturity." In his remarks on 
the heredity of this diseased condition of the system, 
Mr. Sedgwick says : " In some of these cases it is re- 
corded that, while the males alone have suffered from 
the disease, the females alone have been able to trans- 
mit it, as in the case of Mr. Appleton, whose daugh- 
ters conveyed the complaint to his grandsons, and 
who, in their turn, transmitted it through their daugh- 
ters to their grandsons ; the males in this family, as in 
many others similarly affected, never inheriting the 
disease direct from their fathers, but always through 
females from their grandfathers, as occurred in my 
case of ichthyosis." ^ 

* British and Foreign Medico- CJdrurgical Review, 1861, p. 246. 
2 Loc. cit, July, 1861, p. 146. In the case of Mr. Appleton, above 
referred to, references are made to the iVeio England Journal of Medi- 



ATAVISM. 73 

The tendency to an alternation of generations in 
the inheritance of disease, which has already been 
noticed, appears to be analogous in character to the 
alternations determined by the limitation of defects to 
one sex, while the other sex alone seems capable of 
transmitting them. 

In many of the lower animals the alternation of 
generations is the fixed law of generation. 

In the aphides (plant-lice), for example, nine or 
ten generations of individuals are produced in succes- 
sion before those having sexual organs and capable 
of producing eggs make their appearance; and this 
succession of non-sexual generations is uniformly re- 
peated. 

The phenomena of atavism has been claimed to be 
but a reversion of the organization to characters be- 
longing to an original ancestor or type. 

This, in many instances, appears to be the case ; 
but, in the alternations that have been observed in the 
hereditary transmission of disease, and eyen of normal 
peculiarities, the theory of reversion is far from satis- 
factory. 

In the case of Eumpless fowls, as stated by Mr. 
Hewett, individuals with tail-feathers are of frequent 
occurrence, and these, as a rule, produce tailless pro- 
geny.^ 

If, in the case of individuals with tails, there is 
reversion to the original type, in those without tails, 

dne and Surgery^ vol. ii., pp. 221-225, 1813 ; Edinburgh Medical and 
Surgical Journal, vol. xxxvi., pp. 317-320, 1831 ; and vol. Ixxvii., pp. 
1-10, 1852. 

* Tegetmeier's "Poultry-Book," p. 231. 



74 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

bred from parents with tails, there must be revefsion 
again to the tailless form. From the facts, as now 
understood, it appears that two antagonistic characters 
are alike inherited, either one of which may become 
dominant in the offspring. 

The alternation of the character, in different gen- 
erations, may thus be produced by the development 
of the one or the other of two characters belonging 
as strictly to the organization, through inheritance, as 
any other part of the system. 

Although we may not be able, in the following 
cases, to trace the principle of alternation in atavic 
descent, they are, nevertheless, of interest in this con- 
nection, from their close resemblance, in some respects, 
to the cases under discussion. 

" A physician at Marseilles relates a case in which 
deafness from birth occurred in three children alter- 
nately in a family of six. The parents were not af- 
fected. . . . M. Saissy refers to a family living at Aix, 
in Savoy, composed of seven children : the eldest is 
deaf and dumb, the second hears perfectly, the third 
is deaf and dumb, and the fourth enjoys the same ad- 
vantage as the second; the fifth, sixth, and last, are 
completely deaf — the last but one (the sixth) in this 
case being an idiot. There was no defect in either 
parent. ... A similar case occurs in the commune 
of Bessenay, department of the Khone; in a family 
composed of eight children four are deaf and dumb, 
and alternate with four who enjoy the sense of hear- 
ing." 

Claude relates the case "of a woman who gave 
birth to eight children of one and the other sex, the 



ATAVISM. 75 

first, third, fifth, and seventh, of whom attained the 
ordinary size, while the other four were dwarfs." 

In a family of eight children, four sons alternating 
with four daughters, the sons were all healthy, while 
the daughters were all affected with brain-disease 
(hydrocephalus), the only one living being an infant 
under treatment.^ 

From the persistent appearance of the defects in 
these cases in regular alternate succession, we must 
admit the probability, at least, of the existence of some 
hereditary taint of the system, derived from ancestors 
whose history we are unable to trace. 

In the chapter on " Sex " may be found cases in 
which the defect is limited to one sex ; and this, in 
families of both sexes, would result in an alternation 
more or less regular in its inheritance. 

In a large family we seldom find all of the chil- 
dren resembling either the father or the mother, and, 
in many instances, the resemblance to a grandparent 
or some more remote ancestor prevails to so great an 
extent that the obvious peculiarities of the immediate 
parents are obscured. Prof. Agassiz'^ has remarked 
that " the offspring is not the offspring of father and 
mother, but of grandparents as well," and he might 
also have included all of the ancestors in the parental 
enumeration. 

The alternations observed in the transmission of 
ancestral characters, and the resemblance of offspring 

^ The last five cases are quoted from Mr. Sedgwick's paper on the 
" Sexual Limitation of Hereditary Disease," in the British and Foreign 
Medico- Chirurgical Review^ July, 1861, pp. 141, 142, 146. 

^ "Agricultural Report of Massachusetts," 1866-'67, p. 82. 



76 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

to a remote ancestor, that differs in many respects 
from the parents, cannot be referred to a " spon- 
taneous variation " in the law of inheritance, for we 
cannot conceive of an ejffect without an efficient 
cause. 

The repetition of some preexisting character is so 
uniformly observed in all cases of apparent variation 
in the transmission of qualities, in which the history 
of the ancestors can be traced, that we cannot avoid 
the conclusion that these pecuKarities in the heredity 
of the organization are the result of some constant 
and definite physiological law. 

If the form in which the physiological units or 
elements of the organization were transmitted could 
be determined, the obscurity involved in this class of 
cases would in great measure disappear. 

In discussing the subject of inherited resemblance, 
Dr. Carpenter remarks that "the question seems to 
have been entirely ignored, whether the union of two 
different natures may not produce — as in the combi- 
nation of an acid and a base — a resultant essentially 
dissimilar to either of them." ^ 

If two characters may thus blend to form a new 
character essentially different, there could be no con- 
stancy in the transmission of ancestral forms from 
generation to generation, and a wide variation from 
the family type would necessarily result. There could 
be no uniformity in the leading characteristics of our 
improved breeds, and, with our present kaowledge of 
physiological science, the breeding of animals would 
be attended with the greatest uncertainty, from our 

» " Mental Physiology," p. 369. 



ATAVISM. Y7 

inability to predict what a given combination would 
produce. 

Moreover, the phenomena of atavism cannot be 
reconciled with this hypothesis, without the further 
supposition that the elements of the organization, 
combining to form a new compound, may be again 
resolved into their original constituents. 

When characters that have remained latent for 
several generations make their appearance again, with 
all the peculiarities that formerly distinguished them, 
it does not seem probable that they have passed 
through a series of transformations in the formation 
of new characters, and, at the same time, retained 
their original constitution. 

From the facts of heredity already presented in 
the cases cited, it must be evident that the sum of the 
characters or physiological units that enter into the 
organization of the animal cannot be represented in 
the external peculiarities that alone are obvious to the 
senses. It is well known to breeders that many of 
the most important characteristics of the organization, 
in a given case, may not appear upon the surface, or 
in the functional activities of the system, and that 
they can only be traced in the ancestral history, and 
in the inherited peculiarities of offspring. 

In the further discussion of these peculiar forms 
of heredity, it will be necessary to distinguish between 
the more obvious and prominent characters of the ani- 
mal and those obscure characters that can only be 
shown to exist by their hereditary transmission to off- 
spring. The former may be termed dominant char- 
acters, and the latter obscured or latent characters. 



78 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

For many years I have been inclined to the belief 
that all characters are directly transmitted as physio- 
logical nnits or elements of the organization, some of 
which may be dominant, and thns determine the ob- 
vious characteristics of the animal, while others re- 
main latent until they are transmitted to offspring in 
which favorable conditions lead to their development, 
when they, in their turn, may become dominant, and 
thus obscure other characters. 

That characters are transmitted in their integrity, 
without transformation into other characters, is clearly 
asserted by Herbert Spencer, who says, " There must 
arise not an homogeneous mean between two parents, 
but a mixture of organs, some of which mainly follow 
the one parent, and some the other." ^ 

The last clause of this statement cannot, however, 
be literally accepted as a law of inheritance, as we 
have already seen that the dominant characters, in a 
given case, may be inherited from some remote ances- 
tor, while the dominant characters of the parents may 
become latent. 

Mr. Sedgwick, in his paper on " Hereditary Dis- 
ease," says : " It may be observed that in the offspring 
of two dissimilar parents there is never, as a rule, 
complete fusion of the two parents, but a distribution 
of the characters peculiar to each ; and although this 
is less strongly remarked in the offspring of the human 
race than it is in that of the lower animals — as, for ex- 
ample, in the case of some hermaphrodite insects, in 
which the family quarterings may result from specific 
distinctions of sex being associated without fusion in 

^ " Principles of Biology," vol. i., p. 267. 



ATAVISM. 79 

the same specimen, yet, as regards the inheritance of 
disease, it will be f onnd that the morbid characteristics 
of one or the other parent are either completely re- 
peated or completely absent, bnt not fused together in 
the offspring. This is what is meant in inheritance 
by the doctrine of 'election,' which is based on the 
observation that certain attributes of organization pe- 
culiar to one parent are repeated in the offspring ; and 
it offers a reasonable explanation of the fact that chil- 
dren often inherit the defects of one parent, while in 
many other respects they resemble the other ; and the 
inheritance in these cases, both natural and morbid, 
may sometimes be conveyed to them by atavic de- 
scent." ^ 

If it is admitted that the animal inherits an assem- 
blage of peculiarities representing the aggregate of 
parental characters, it must follow that all of the char- 
acters of all ancestors are in like manner inherited, as 
each generation would inherit and transmit the pecu- 
liarities of the preceding generation, and this, in turn, 
would inherit and transmit the peculiarities of the 
next preceding, and so on indefinitely. The phenom- 
ena of atavism seem to show that we cannot set a 
limit to the inheritance of characters. Theoretically, 
a defect or peculiarity may be "bred out," as it is 

^ British and Foreign 3fedico-Chirurgieal Review^ J^^y? 1863, pp. 
190, 191. As an illustration of the distinct inheritance of qualities, 
the case is given of " the scarce egger-moth, observed by Mr. West- 
wood" ("Entomologist's Text-Book," p. 397, 1838), "at Berlin, in 
which the front-part of the body and front-half of the wings were 
half male and half female, and the hind-part and hind-wings half fe- 
male and half male, the characters of the male and female insect being 
exhibited on opposite quarters of this specimen." 



80 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

termed, until it is represented mathematicallj by a 
fraction so small as to scarcely merit attention, and 
yet, as frequently observed, it may again appear in a 
manner indicating that it lias been constantly trans- 
mitted, without change, through a long series of gen- 
erations. 

Mr. Sedgwick remarks, in regard to atavism in 
disease, that "no fixed boundaries, recognizable by 
us, can be expected to limit its operation, for, like 
other general laws in l^ature, unity in principle coex- 
ists with variety in results ; and it is chiefly because 
we are less familiar with the results of atavism in dis- 
ease than we are with many other reproductive phe- 
nomena, as, for the sake of illustration, with memory, 
that we hesitate to accept them, although they are 
not, in themselves, more exceptional or peculiar than 
some of those are which we not only never hesitate to 
accept, but with which this phenomenon in morbid 
development seems to be closely allied. For atavism 
in disease appears to be but an instance of memory in 
reproduction, as imitation is expressed in direct de- 
scent ; and in the same way that memory never, as it 
were, dies out, but in some state always exists, so the 
previous existence of some peculiarity in organization 
may likewise be regarded as never absolutely lost in 
succeeding generations, except by extinction of race." * 

It has been remarked that no two animals are pre- 
cisely alike, in all details of the organization, no mat- 
ter how close the relationship or how striking the re- 
semblance ; and, in connection with this, it has been 
observed that instances occur in which individuals 

^ British and Foreign Medico- Chirurgical Review ^ July, 1863, p. 197. 



ATAVISM. 81 

present an assemblage of characters quite different 
from those that characterize the parents. These have 
been explained on the supposition that there mnst be 
a law of " spontaneity " which is antagonistic to that 
of heredity, or that the law of heredity is not constant 
in its action, but limited by numerous exceptions/ 

The view we have presented of the law of inheri- 
tance would seem to preclude the necessity of any 
such hypothesis to account for the individual varia- 
tions referred to. Many of the cases of supposed 
variation are fully explained on the principle of atavic 
descent, which is, as we have seen, but a phase of the 
great law of heredity. 

If characters are transmitted as physiological units, 
it will be readily seen that, although an animal may 
be composed of precisely the same elements as its an- 
cestors, the dominance of some of these, or the ar- 
rangement of the elements themselves, must give rise 
to individual peculiarities, or even to forms not pre- 
cisely identical with those exhibited in the dominant 
characters of any ancestor. Any observed variations 
in the inheritance of form, color, or general character- 
istics, may thus be readily accounted for, within the 
limits of the characters belonging to the ancestors. 

In these cases of apparent variation, the similarity 
of the offspring to its ancestors consists in the posses- 
sion of the same assemblage of characters which is 
often shown in a general rather than a special resem- 
blance. From the complexity of the elements trans- 
mitted from generation to generation, we cannot ex- 
pect the offspring, in a particular case, to be the exact 

1 Ribot on " Heredity," p. 194, etc. 



82 PRINCIPLES OP STOCK-BREEDING. 

connterpart, in dominant characters, of either parent 
or of any ancestor ; but, on the other hand, we have 
no reason to believe that any characters will appear 
that have not been derived by direct or interrupted 
descent from some ancestor. 

"When speaking of the resemblance of offspring to 
ancestors, in a popular sense, the dominant characters 
are- alone referred to ; but, as these, as has been shown, 
may constitute but a small proportion of the elements 
of the organization, a strict comparison of resemblances 
must include a wider range of characteristics. 

In this connection, the importance of a full record 
of the pedigrees of breeding animals will be readily 
suggested, as a means of tracing the history of ances- 
tors, for the purpose of determining the characters 
that are liable to be transmitted by atavic descent. 
As the subject of pedigree, however, involves a num- 
ber of questions that have not as yet been examined, 
a full consideration of its practical bearings must be, 
for the present, omitted. 



CHAPTER YI. 

LAW OF COREELATION. 

The external form and general characteristics of 
an individual, as determined by heredity, are the re- 
sult, as we have seen, of the prominence of those 
characters that are made dominant, and the suppres- 
sion of others which, for the time being, are said to 
be latent. In the arrangement of these dominant 
characters in the organization, a principle of develop- 
ment and suppression appears to prevail, which is 
recognized by naturalists as the law of correlation. 
This law may be defined in general terms as follows : 
Any peculiarity in the development of one organ, or 
set of organs, is usually accompanied by a correspond- 
ing modification or suppression of organs belonging 
to some other part of the system. In this place we 
shall only notice the relations of this law to heredity, 
reserving for another chapter its applications in deter- 
mining internal qualities from peculiarities of external 
conformation. 

The correlated structure of animals enables the 
comparative anatomist, from the examination of a 
single tooth, or fragment of bone, to determine not 
only the class and order to which an animal belongs, 
but its habits and mode of life, and the character of 



84: PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

the food required for its support. The celebrated 
naturalist, Milne-Edwards, in his article on Crustacea, 
says, " It has long been admitted as an axiom in ani- 
mal physics that, when any particular part of the body 
acquires a very high degree of development, certain 
other parts stop short of their ordinary state of evolu- 
tion, as if the former had obtained their unusual incre- 
ment at the cost of the latter." ^ 

Cuvier, the great comparative anatomist, claimed 
that "all organized beings, in their structure, form 
a complete system, of which the parts mutually cor- 
respond and conduce to the same definite action by a 
reciprocal reaction. Each of these parts cannot be 
changed without the others changing also; and, by 
consequence, each of these taken separately indicates 
and gives all the rest." " 

Prof. Owen, in his valuable work on the " Com- 
parative Anatomy of the Vertebrates," gives the fol- 
lowing illustrations of this law of development : " As 
vertebrates rise in the scale, and the adaptive principle 
predominates, the law of correlation, as enunciated by 
Cuvier, becomes more operative. In the jaws of the 
lion, e. g., there are large laniaries, or canines, formed 
to pierce, lacerate, and retain its prey. . . . There are 
also compressed, trenchant, flesh-cutting teeth, which 
play upon each other like scissor-blades in the move- 
ment of the lower upon the upper jaw. The lower 
jaw is short and strong ; it articulates to the skull by a 
transversely-extended convexity, or condyle, received 

1 " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. i., p. TSY. 
^ As quoted by Prof. Owen, " Comparative Anatomy of the Verte- 
brates," vol. i., p. 27. 



LAW OF CORRELATION. 85 

into a corresponding concavity, forming a closelj-fit- 
tiQg joint, which gives a firm attachment to the jaw, 
but almost restricts it to the movements of opening 
and closing the mouth. The jaw of the carnivora de- 
velops a plate of bone, of breadth and height adequate 
for the implantation of muscles, with power to inflict 
a deadly bite. 

" These muscles require a large extent of surface 
for their origin from the cranium, with concomitant 
strength and curvature of the zygomatic arch, and are 
associated with a strong occipital crest and lofty dorsal 
spines, for vigorous uplifting and retraction of the 
head when the prey has been griped. 

" The limbs are armed with short claws, and en- 
dued with the requisite power, extent, and freedom of 
motion, for the wielding of these weapons. These and 
other structures of the highly-organized carnivora are 
so coordinated as to justify Cuvier in asserting that 
* the form of the tooth gives that of the condyle, of 
the blade-bone, and of the claws, just as the equation 
of a curve evolves all its properties, and exactly as, in 
taking each property by itself as the base of a particu- 
lar equation, one discovers both the ordinary equation 
and all its properties, so the claw, the blade-bone, the 
condyle, the femur, and all the other bones individu- 
ally, give the teeth, or are given thereby reciprocally, 
and, in commencing by any of these, whoever pos- 
sesses rationally the laws of the organic economy will 
be able to reconstruct the entire animal.' " 

" The law of correlation receives as striking illus- 
trations from the structure of the herbivorous mam- 
mals." A limb terminating in a hoof serves for loco- 



86 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

motion only ; it cannot be nsed as an organ of prehen- 
sion, to grasp, seize, or tear. The ruminant hoofed 
animals all have a cloven hoof, and they are the only 
ones with horns on the frontal bone. When the hoofs 
are in one or two pairs, the horns are also in one or 
two pairs. The horned ungulates, with three hoofs, 
have either one horn, or two horns placed one before 
the other, in the middle of the skull. ^ 

In the ruminants there is, moreover, a marked cor- 
relation in the form of the teeth, the articulation of 
the jaw, which provides for a free lateral motion in 
grinding their food, and the complex structure of the 
digestive organs. 

Dr. Carpenter says : " It is perfectly true that, in 
a great majority of cases, the extraordinary develop- 
ment of one organ is acGomjpanied by a corresponding 
deficiency of development in another. Thus, in the 
human cranium, the elements which form the cover- 
ing or protection of the brain are very largely devel- 
oped, while those which constitute the face are com- 
paratively small. In the long-snouted herbivorous 
mammals, and in reptiles and fishes, on the other 
hand, the great development of the bones of the face 
is coincident with* a very small capacity of the cerebral 
cavity. 

" In the bat, while the anterior extremity is widely 
extended, so as to afford the animal the means of rising 
in the air, the posterior is very much lightened, so as 
not to impede its flight. In the kangaroo, on the 
other hand, the posterior members are very large and 

^ Owen's " Comparatiye Anatomy of the Vertebrates," vol. i., pp. 
xxvii., xxviii. 



LAW OF CORRELATION. 87 

powerful, enabling tlie animal to take long leaps, while 
the fore-paws are proportionally small." ^ 

In blind persons the sense of touch attains a deli- 
cacy that is surprising. 

" It is well known that Dr. Saunderson, the cele- 
brated blind Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge, 
not only acquired a very accurate knowledge of med- 
als, but could even distinguish genuine medals from 
imitations, more certainly than most connoisseurs in 
full possession of their senses." ' 

Cases are on record of blind persons who could not 
only distinguish colors, but shades of the same color. 
The muscular sense which is employed by the blind, 
in connection with touch, in discriminating the form, 
peculiarities of surface, and size of objects, becomes 
in these cases remarkably developed.^ 

It is stated that persons affected with color-blind- 
ness frequently have a defective musical ear.* 

The sense of smell, in some blind persons, is so ex- 
ceedingly acute that they are enabled, by it alone, to 
recognize persons not in immediate contact with them. 

" In the well-known case of James Mitchell, who 
was deaf, blind, and dumb, from his birth, it was the 
principal means by which he distinguished persons, 
and enabled him at once to perceive the entrance of a 
stranger." ^ 

* " Comparative Physiology," p. 130. 

2 "Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. iv., p. 11 78. 

3 Ibid., loc. cit. 

* See Dr. Earle's article in the American Journal of the Medical, 
Sciences, vol. xxxv., p. 34*7 ; and article " Vision," " Cyclopaedia of Anat- 
omy and Physiology," vol. iv., p. 1453. 

^ " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. iv,, p. 102. 



88 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

Mr. Darwin states that " black dogs, with tan-col- 
ored feet, whatever breed they may belong to, almost 
invariably have a tan-colored spot on the upper and 
inner corners of each eye, and their lips are generally 
thus colored." ' 

According to the same author, " white cats, if they 
have bine eyes, are almost always deaf." 

In the cases cited it is shown that, if there is the 
" least speck of color on their fnr," or if even but one 
eye is not blue, the sense of hearing is not lost ; and, 
in one instance, in which the iris at the end of four 
months began to grow " dark-colored," the cat then 
began to hear.' 

It has been remarked that a white spot or blaze on 
the face of a horse is usually accompanied by white 
feet. 

In the deer tribe. Prof. Baird notices a singular 
correlation of the horns and organs of reproduction. 
He says : " In all deer, except, perhaps, the reindeer, 
if the male be castrated when the horns are in a state 
of perfection, these will never be shed ; if the opera- 
tion be performed when the head is bare, they wiU 
never be reproduced ; and, if done when the secretion 
is going on, a stunted, ill-formed, permanent horn is 
the result." ' 

Mr. Youatt remarks that a " multiplicity of horns 
is not found in any breed (of sheep) intrinsically of 
much value. It is generally accompanied by great 
length and coarseness of fleece, and which, in the ma- 

* " Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. i., p. 42. 

' Zoc. cit.y vol. ii., p. 396. 

3 "Patent-Office Report," Part II., "Agriculture," 1851, p. 111. 



LAW OF CORRELATION. 89 

jority of these cases, assumes more the form of hair 
than of wool." * 

The tusks, which attain a great size in the boar, 
are not fully developed in swine that are castrated.' 

What are called the secondary sexual characters of 
the male are not developed in animals that are cas- 
trated ; and, among birds, it has been observed that 
females incapable of breeding, from age or the effects 
of disease, sometimes assume the plumage and voice 
of the male." 

The cock of the Sebright bantams should be hen- 
tailed and without sickle-feathers, thus presenting a 
close resemblance to the female. This character, so 
highly prized by exhibitors, has, however, its disad- 
vantages. 

Mr. Hewitt remarks, in regard to these breeds; 
" The combined experience of many other admirers 
of the Sebright bantams is concurrent with my own, 
viz., that even a very trifling disposition to sickle- 
feather in the tail brings with it proportionably in- 
creased productiveness ; and that, on the other hand, 
absolute perfection of hen-tailed character in the male 
bird as generally entails sterility." * 

The tail is entirely wanting in Rumpless fowls, 
and it is said that they " are sadly prone to lay unfer- 
tilized eggs." * 

The law of correlation, in its relations to structure 

' " Sheep," p. 141. 

® Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society^ vol. xv., p. 285. 

3 "Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. ii., p. 68. 

^ Tegetmeier on " Poultry," p. 245. 

3 Ibid., p. 232. ^ 



90 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

and function, furnishes tlie best explanation of the 
difficulty experienced by breeders in retaining and 
developing, in their greatest perfection, two essential- 
ly different functions in the dominant characteristics 
of the same animal. 

In attempting to secure the highest development 
of some particular quality, a gradual and, it may be, 
an undesirable change is so often observed in the 
qualities depending on the functional activity of some 
other part or parts of the system as to lead to the be- 
lief that the quality that is retained is incompatible 
with a high development of the function that is im- 
paired in its activity. 

A deficiency in the production of milk has often 
been noticed in animals that are remarkable in the 
tendency to fatten. Mr. Price, a noted breeder of 
Hereford cattle, says : " Experience has taught me 
that no animals possessing form, and other requisites 
giving them a great disposition to fatten, are calcu- 
lated to give much milk; nor is it reasonable to sup- 
pose they should — ^it would be in direct opposition to 
the law of JSTature. Had I willed it twenty years ago, 
my belief is that I could, by this time, have bred 
twenty cows, purely from my own herd, which should 
have given a sufficient quantity of milk for (paying) 
dairy purposes ; and I am equally confident that, in 
the same period, I could have bred a similar number 
that would not, at any time, have given twenty quarts 
of milk per day among them. 

"I feel confident I could effect either of these 
objects much more easily and certainly than I could 
blend the two properties in the same animal, retain- 



LAW OP CORRELATION. 91 

ing also tlie form and quality best adapted to live hard 
and feed." ^ 

It is not claimed that higli feeding qualities cannot 
be combined with good milking properties, but that 
it is easier to excel in either single quality than to se- 
cure a high development of both. It does not, as a 
matter of course, follow that antagonistic characters 
are strictly incompatible. Additional illustrations of 
the law of correlation may be found in the chapters 
relating to other topics ; the facts abeady cited will, 
however, serve my present purpose, as they clearly 
indicate that an intimate relation exists between the 
characters that are comprised in the dominant features 
of the organization, and that these characters are trans- 
mitted in their integrity, without essential change. 

An equilibrium of the organization can only be 
obtained by an arrangement of its elements in strict 
accordance with the law of correlation. Any modifi- 
cation of even a single character may, therefore, in- 
volve corresponding changes in other parts of the sys- 
tem, and a consequent rearrangement of the dominant 
characteristics. 

When the balance of the system is in this manner 
disturbed, it is difficult to determine the extent of the 
change that may follow, as it may result in trans- 
posing the latent and dominant characters, and develop 
in the offspring a resemblance to some remote ances- 
tor. 

^ i^armer's Magazine, vol. xiv., p. 50. See also CuUey on " Live- 
stock," fourth edition, 1807, p. 87. 



CHAPTER YII. 

VAEIATION. 

OuE domestic animals, in common with other spe- 
cies, are endowed with a flexibility or plasticity of the 
organization that enables them to adapt themselves to 
the conditions in which they are placed. As a result 
of a favorable change in the conditions to which ani- 
mals are subjected, important modifications of the 
system are obtained, that we recognize as improve- 
ments in form and qnahty; while deterioration and 
loss of valuable characters follow when the prevailing 
conditions of life are unfavorable to the full and 
healthy development of the organization. 

From the fact that variations are more readily pro- 
duced in domesticated varieties than in wild species, 
it would appear that the change of conditions involved 
in the process of domestication has not only produced 
a wide range of variations in the characteristics of 
animals, but developed an increased plasticity of the 
organization that renders them more susceptible to the 
influence of modifying causes. 

The distinguishing characteristics of the various 
breeds of animals have been produced, in the main, 
by the modifying influences that prevail in the locali- 
ties in which they have originated. 



VARIATION. 93 

In tlie improved families of pure-bred animals, tlie 
influence of artificial conditions in modifying charac- 
ters is further shown in the excessive development 
obtained in special directions. 

The principal causes of animal variation are cli- 
mate, food, and habit ; the influence of the first two, 
in many cases, being so intimately connected that it is 
difficult to determine what is due to each, while all of 
them may at times act together. Of the many illus- 
trations of the modifying influence of climate that 
might be drawn from the vegetable kingdom, we 
shall only present some general statements in regard 
to two of our leading crops. 

Indian-corn (maize) has a wide geographical range, 
but in its distribution and development it is influenced 
in a great degree by climatic conditions. In North 
America its extreme limits at the IN^orth " are defined 
by the isothermal of 67° for July, and it may go be- 
yond 65° for the summer ; one month, however, being 
required at a higher mean than this." ^ 

In E'orthem Europe, including Great Britain, the 
comparatively low summer temperature prevents the 
ripening of this valuable cereal, although it is grown 
in some localities as a forage-crop. 

The time required for ripening the crop in locali- 
ties where it is grown varies -greatly with the climate. 
In its extreme northern range, where the smaller va- 
rieties only are grown, but from two to two and a half 
months are required to bring it to maturity, while at 
the South a period of from ^yg to six months is neces- 
sary. 

* Blodgett's " Climatology of the United States," p. 420. 



94 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

Heller, in describing the variations in maize culti- 
vated in Mexico, states that the time of ripening varies 
from " seven months to six weeks." ^ 

At the ]^orth the plant presents a dwarfed ap- 
pearance, while at the South the stalks are very 
large, the ears frequently being higher than a man 
can reach. 

A collection of corn that I made in 1876, to illus- 
trate the variations produced by climate, represents 
many interesting features in the character and distri- 
bution of varieties. 

At the IN'orth the cob, as a rule, is larger in pro- 
portion than in the Southern varieties, or in apparent- 
ly the same varieties grown in the Middle States. At 
the ISTorth the flint varieties are exclusively grown, 
while at the South they are entirely replaced by the 
dent varieties. The smallest well-developed ear in 
the collection weighs but half an ounce, while the 
largest ear turns the scale at one pound eight and a 
half ounces. 

The influence of climate upon the distribution and 
development of wheat is hardly less marked. Samples 
in my cabinet from British Columbia, Oregon, Canada, 
Michigan, Hussia, l^orway, Sweden, and Australia, 
present marked contrasts in their general appear- 
ance. 

In ISTorth America a mean temperature of from 
57° to 65°, and in England of 60°, for the months 
of July and August, is required for its full develop- 
ment. 

In 1853 the mean temperature of these months in 

» " Patent-Office Report," "Agriculture," 1847, p. 412. 



VARIATION. 95 

England was from 57° to 59°, which had the effect to 
diminish the crop from one-half to one-third/ 

Even peculiarities resulting from a slight differ- 
ence in locality may have an important influence on 
the time required for its growth and ripening. Mar- 
shall states that, in the Cotswold Hills, a " stone might 
be flung from the country which sows its wheat in 
August into that which sows its wheat in Decem- 
ber." =« 

A variety of food is required by animals, so that 
each organ concerned in the process of nutrition may 
perform its fair proportion of work, and thus secure a 
healthy development, resulting in a symmetrical bal- 
ance of the system. 

Among animals we cannot fail to observe that 
the small breeds of sheep and cattle in mountainous 
regions present a decided contrast to the breeds ob- 
taining an abundant supply of food in the fertile val- 
leys of the same country.^ 

As the relation of the size of animals to the sup- 
ply of food they are provided with has been noticed 
by almost every writer on the management of live- 
stock, we need not, for the present, give a detailed 
discussion of the subject.* 

* Blodgett's " Climatology of the United States," p. 446. See also 
Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 1873, p. 379. 

« " Rural Economy of Gloucestershire," 1789, vol. ii., p. 52. 

2 Low's " Domestic Animals," pp. 41, 264. 

*" Agricultural Report of Staffordshire," p. 174; "Agricultural 
Report of Middlesex," p. 406 ; Youatt on " Cattle," p. 525 ; Youatt on 
"The Horse," p. 60; Coventry on "Agriculture," p. 182; Dickson's 
"Practical Agriculture," vol. ii., pp. 638-640; Cline on "Breeding and 
Form," p. 12. 



96 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

The great development in fattening quality and 
in early maturity, that characterizes the modern meat- 
producing breeds of cattle and sheep, has been secured 
by a liberal supply of nutritious food during the pe- 
riod of growth, in connection with a judicious system 
of breeding, that has fixed and made dominant the 
desirable modifications thus obtained. 

The Spanish merino sheep, imported into this 
country in the early part of the present century, were 
valued principally for their wool, the peculiar system 
of management to which they had been subjected for 
many generations having made them decidedly defi- 
cient in ability to fatten and in the quality of their 
flesh. 

Their descendants, from the influence of modified 
habits and a better supply of food, present such a 
wide departure from the original type, in the greater 
weight and quality of fleece, in the increased tendency 
to fatten, and the marked improvement in the quality 
of flesh, that they are jnstly entitled to the distinctive 
appellation of American merinoes which is now gen- 
erally given them. 

The breeders of merino sheep have been directing 
their attention almost exclusively to the improvement 
of the fleece, and the greater value of the improved 
breed for the purposes of the feeder and the butcher 
has been obtained through the means adopted for 
the development of other characters. 

It is perhaps impossible to obtain any decided 
modification of a single character without producing 
corresponding modifications of other parts of the or- 
ganization. 



TARIATION. 97 

In the improvement of the mutton-breeds of sheep, 
breeders have almost uniformly aimed to secure great- 
er symmetry in their general proportions, in connec- 
tion with early maturity, and to diminish any ten- 
dency to coarseness that may have existed in the ori- 
ginal breed. 

In all of the improved breeds of sheep a general 
refinement of the system has been developed, as the 
result of the improvements that have been made in 
special characters, and this has apparently produced a 
finer fibre of wool, notwithstanding the lack of atten- 
tion to this particular quality on the part of breeders. 

In 1835 Mr. Youatt, assisted by Mr. Powell, a 
manufacturer of microscopes in London, made meas- 
urements of the wool-fibres of different breeds, which 
were published in 1840, in his work on " Sheep," ^ as 
follows : 



No 


. of Fibres to 








the Incli. 






Saxon .... 


840 






Merino . . . . 


750 (from 


Lord Western's 


flock) 


Odessa wool . 


750 






Negretti . . " . 


750 






Common merino 


750 






Australian wool . 


750 






New South Wales wool . 


750 






McArthur's Australian wool 


I, 780 (Saxon?) 




Leicester 


600 






" (from Ireland) . 


560 






Cheviot .... 


500 






South-Down 


660 







The finest sample measured was from the Deccan 

» Youatt on " Sheep," p. 87. 



98 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 



black sheep of India, wliich gave 1,000 fibres to the 
inch. 

In 18 64-' 6 5 I measured wool from several flocks, 
with the following result. 

With the exception of the Saxon, of which the 
date of shearing was not known, the samples were all 
from fleeces of 1864. 







No 


of Fibres to 














the Inch. 










Saxon 


ram . 


. 


1242 (from 


flock of W. H. Ladd, Ohio). 


u 


ewe 


, 


1347 


a 


a 


a (( a (( 


Silesian ram . 


. 


1352 


(( 


. (( 


w. 


Chamberlain, 














New York. 


Merino 


ram (Silver- 


mine) 


1212 


u 


u 


E. Hammond, Yt. 


(( 


" (Sweepstakes) 1186 


(( 


(( 


u 




u 


" (Gold-drop) 


1185 


(( 


u 


(( 




u 


ewe (Old Queen) 


1275 


u 


u 


(( 




(( 


*' (Queen, 


2d) 


1183 


(( 


u 


(( 




(( 


" (Queen, 


3d) 


1138 


u 


u 


(( 




a 


" (Queen, 


4th) 


1223 


(t 


a 


u 




n 


" (Queen, 


5th) 


1274 


u 


(( 


(( 




t( 


ram . 


, 


1164 


(( 


(( 


Hon 


Chas. Rich, 














Lapeer, Michigan. 


Merino 


ewe 




1064 


il 


(( 


(( 


(( u 


u 


u 




1164 


u 


u 


u 


(( u 


11 


(( 




1023 


a 


u 


u 


(( (( 


(( 


u 




1022 


« 


il 


C( 


(( (( 


Grade 


merino ewe 




1077 


(( 


u 


Mich. Agricul. Col. 


(( 


(( (( 




1249 


(( 


u 


(( 


(( (t 


u 


« u 




1248 


u 


(( 


u 


U (( 


South-Down ewe . 




732 


(( 


a 


(( 


(( (( 


u 


u u 




708 


u 


u 


(( 


U (( 


(( 


n u 




742 


(( 


u 


u 


u u 


(( 


U (( 




845 


(( 


(( 


a 


U <( 



In 1877 I measured samples of wool obtained at 



VAEIATION. 



99 



the Centennial Exposition at Philadelpliia, in 1876, 
as follows : 



No. of Fibres to 
the Inch. 

Cheviot ewe, 842 from Ed. Henty, Portland, Victoria, Anst 



" lamb 

(( a 

Leicester . 

u 

Lincoln . 



579 
827 
Y32 
685 
682 
769 
731 
734 



Grade Lincoln 874 



Merino 



790 

. 1199 

. 1230 

. 1173 

. 1500 

. 1376 

. 1079 

. 1266 

. 1325 

. 1180 

. 1334 

. 1184 

. 1208 



"Wm. Murray, Brie-Brie, 

(( a (( u 

Wm. H. BuUivant, 



Ovidio Zubianrre, Buenos Ay res, Ar- 
gentine Eepublic. 

Ovidio Zubiaurre, Buenos Ayres, Ar- 
gentine Eepublic. 

M. Morgan, Argentine Eepublic. 

E. Goldsbroughj Melbourne, Victoria, 
Australia. 

E. Goldsbrougb, Melbourne, Victoria, 
Australia. 

Tbos. CummingSj Victoria, Australia. 

William Lewis, " " 

U U (( u 

Eoss and Jas. Eanden " " 

"William Lang, Wargam, New South 
Wales, Australia. 

Buenos Ayres, Argentine Eepublic. 

Wilfren Latham, Los Alamos, Argen- 
tine Eepublic. 

Wilfren Latham, Los Alamos, Argen- 
tine Eepublic. 

Mariano Fnsue, Buenos Ayres, Ar- 
gentine Eepublic. 

Geronimo Iraizos, Loberia, Argentine 
Eepublic. 



100 



PRINCIPLES OP STOCK-BREEDINa. 



Merino . . 


1450 


Negretti . . 


1138 


(( 


1081 


u 


1162 


(( 


1266 


Eambouillet, 


1035 


u 


1062 


(( 


1150 



No. of Fibres to 
the Inch. 

1450 from J. W, Corrales, Buenos Ayres, Argen- 
tine Republic. 

George Stegman, Buenos Ayres, Ar- 
gentine Republic. 

Charles J. Guerrero, Buenos Ayres, 
Argentine Republic. 

Francisco Ohas, Buenos Ayres, Ar- 
gentine Republic. 

Samuel B. Hale, Buenos Ayres, Ar- 
gentine Republic. 

M. Morgan, Buenos Ayres,- Argentine 
Republic. 

Emilio Duportal, Buenos Ayres, Ar- 
gentine Republic. 

Emilio Duportal, Buenos Ayres, Ar- 
gentine Republic. 



As tliese samples, from widely different localities, 
are, without exception, miicli finer than the specimens 
measured by Mr. Youatt, we may safely attribute the 
change to the same causes that have produced the 
modifications of form and feeding qualities that char- 
acterize all of the improved breeds. 

The Kerry cattle of Ireland are a small and hardy 
race. The scanty supply of coarse food obtained on 
their native hills, by industrious efforts, gives a slow 
growth and a late development of the organization, so 
that the heifers, it is said, do not breed until six or 
seven years old. 

Animals of this breed raised in Massachusetts, un- 
der more favorable conditions for development, are 
larger than the original type, and mature earlier, the 
heifers breeding at the age of three years. 



VARIATIOIT. 101 

As the climate of Massachusetts is not so mild and 
uniform as that of Ireland, we must attribute the 
changes observed in these cattle to the influence of 
shelter during the winter, in connection with a better 
supply of food. 

It is a well-known law of the organization that the 
highest development of any particular organ, or set of 
organs, can only be attained by their repeated and 
systematic exercise. 

The athlete, as well as the horse in training for a 
race, must perform an amount of work that taxes the 
system severely, to secure that strength and develop- 
ment of the muscular system that fit him for the 
best exhibition of his powers. The highest mental 
development can only be obtained by severe intellect- 
ual effort. 

Mr. Darwin has shown that the proportional weight 
of the wing-bones of wild-ducks is greater than in tame 
varieties, while the proportional weight of the leg- 
bones is greatest in the latter.^ 

The activity of the glandular system depends 
largely upon the demands made upon it, in accordance 
with the same principle. 

Dr. Carpenter, in his article on the " Yarieties of 
Mankind," says.: "Another remarkable fact, relative 
to the oxen of South America, is recorded by M. 
Eoulin. In Colombia the practice of milking cows 
was laid aside, owing to the great extent of the farms 
and other circumstances. In a few generations the 
natural structure of the parts and the natural state of 
the function have been restored, the secretion of milk 

^ "Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. i., p. 345. 



102 PEINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

taking place only so long as the caK remains with 
the mother, and ceasing if it dies or is removed. 
Hence we have a valuable confirmation of the be- 
lief previously entertained, that the continued pro- 
duction of milk by the European breeds of cows is 
a modified function in the animal economy, origi- 
nating in an artificial habit kept up through many 
generations, and dependent upon a modification of 
structure which that habit has been the means of in- 
ducing." ^ 

The practice, too generally prevailing, of raising 
young animals by means of nurses, so that the mothers 
may go " dry " and be fitted for exhibition, must re- 
sult, in a few generations, in a serious deficiency of 
the milking qualities. 

Sir Charles Lyell informs us that " some English- 
men engaged in conducting the mining operations of 
the Real del Monte Company, in Mexico, carried out 
l^ith them some greyhounds of the best breed, to hunt 
the hares which abound in that country. The great 
platform which is the scene of sport is at an eleva- 
tion of about nine thousand feet above the level of 
the sea, and the mercury in the barometer stands ha- 
bitually at the height of about nineteen inches. It 
was found that the greyhounds could not support the 
fatigues of a long chase in this attenuated atmos- 
phere, and before they could come up with their prey 
they lay down gasping for breath ; but these same ani- 
mals have produced whelps which have grown up and 
are not in the least degree incommoded by the want 
of density in the air, but run down the hares with as 

* " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. iv., p. 1312. 



VARIATION. 103 

miicli ease as the fleetest of their race in this conn- 
try."- 

In the modifications of form, habits, instincts, and 
general activity of the functions of organs, resulting 
from the agencies under consideration, the principle 
of correlation, to which we have already referred, may 
be readily traced. 

"We cannot, in fact, make a decided change in any 
part of the system without producing a corresponding 
modification of some other part that is correlated 
with it. 

The tendency to early maturity, which is so highly 
developed in the meat-producing breeds, is accom- 
panied with a change in the period of dentition, and 
this fact has to be taken into account in determining 
the age of animals by the teeth.' 

There is not only a difficulty in producing a con- 
siderable modification of several characters at the same 
time, but there is also the danger of suppressing some 
character we wish to retain, by the development of a 
new one not in harmony with it. 

Family characteristics are produced by limiting 
the range of variations to the particular standard the 
breeder wishes to establish. The greatest skill will 
be required in establishing the family type, to retain, 
in connection with the desired characters, the qual- 
ities that give vigor to the constitution and insure 
an active performance of the function of reproduc- 
tion, and to prevent, at the same time, the develop- 

* Quoted from " Cycloptedia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. iv., 
p. 1303. 

* Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society^ vol. xv., p. 328. 



104 PRINCIPLES or STOCK-BREEDING. 

ment of peculiarities that are in themselves objection- 
able. 

Erom the manner in which family characters are 
produced, it will be exceedingly difficult to ingraft 
any new character upon a family without destroying, 
to a greater or less extent, its specific characteristics. 
In the improved breeds, and especially in those in 
which early maturity and the tendency to lay on fat 
are highly developed by artificial treatment, the great 
predominance of one group of characters seems to in- 
volve an unstable condition of the organization, and a 
consequent tendency to further variation. 

It is often remarked that it is more difficult to re- 
tain a given character than to produce it. If the con- 
ditions that gave rise to a particular character are 
changed, the character itself must be changed also. 
It is a common mistake of those not familiar with the 
principles of breeding and the causes of variation, to 
suppose that the highly-artificial characters of im- 
proved breeds can be retained in the absence of the 
conditions that produced them. 

If high feeding has developed a variation in a par- 
ticular direction, a scanty supply of food would cer- 
tainly destroy it, and produce a variation of an oppo- 
site character. Improved characters can only be made 
permanent by breeding together the animals that pos- 
sess them, and continuing without variation the same 
system of management that originally produced them. 

Improvements that have been effected by better 
care and an abundant supply of food for many genera- 
tions, may be lost in a comparatively short time, by 
placing the animals under less favorable conditions 



VARIATION. 105 

and diminishing their supply of food. A single illus- 
tration of the effects of neglect will be given : 

" During the French Eeyolntionary War the ex- 
cessive price of corn attracted the attention of the Gla- 
morganshire farmers to the increased cultivation of 
it, and a great proportion of the best pastures were 
turned over by the plough — cattle were almost entire- 
ly neglected. . . . The natural consequence of inat- 
tention and starvation was, that the breed greatly de- 
generated in its disposition to fatten, and, certainly, 
with many exceptions, but yet as their general char- 
acter, the Glamorganshire cattle became and are flat- 
sided, sharp in the hip-joints and shoulders, high in 
the rump, too long on the legs, with thick skins, and 
a delicate constitution." ^ 

" It is well known that defective sanitary arrange- 
ments in the dwellings of the poor may, by primarily 
affecting the parents, impair the physical development 
of their offspring, and that congenital deformities are, 
for example, sometimes the result of the continued 
deprivation of light, which thus indirectly induces an 
arrest of development, such as can be produced direct- 
ly and at will in the case of tadpoles, which, in the 
absence of light, fail to become frogs." ^ 

" The effect of darkness in producing deformities 
is well illustrated in the case of the French historical 
painter, Ducornet, who used to paint with his feet, 
having been born without arms, of poor parents living 
in one of the dark caverns under the fortifications of 

1 Youatt on "Cattle," p. 61. 

2 Sedgwick, in British and Foreign Medico- Chirurgical Review, July, 
1863, p. IH. 



106 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

Lille. It appears that several of the deformed beg- 
gars in Paris had also been born at Lille, and that the 
effect of the absence of light in these underground 
places, in producing malformed births, was so notori^ 
ous that the magistrates of Lille issued strict orders to 
prohibit the poor from taking up their abode in them." ' 

Variations frequently occur in particular locahties, 
that cannot be explained on account of the obscure 
action of the agencies that produce them. Such va- 
riations are said to be the result of endemic influences, 
which is a convenient name for local agencies that are 
not as yet fully understood. 

As an illustration of the obscure action of endemic 
causes of variation, the following examples are given : 
In the case of a family which dwelt alternately at 
Paris and Bordeaux, " the children engendered at 
Bordeaux were all bom deaf-mutes ; the children en- 
gendered at Paris were all endowed, as their parents, 
with perfect integrity of hearing. And this endemic 
influence is still more clearly shown in the case re- 
corded by Puybonnieux (' Mutisme et Surdite,' p. 30, 
1846), of a married couple with eight children, of 
whom five were deaf-mutes; four of these last and 
two children who could speak were born at Kebre- 
chien, at a house called Le Jen de Paume, situated 
near the forest of Orleans, in a place elevated and ap- 
parently healthy ; nevertheless, the people who had 
dwelt there before the married couple referred to, had 
had three children, of whom two were deaf-mutes." ^ 

' 3fedical Gazette, vol. x., p. 848, 1832 ; quoted by Sedgwick in foot- 
note, loc. cit., p. 174. 

2 British and Foreign Medico- Chirurgical Review, July, 1863, p. 176. 



VARIATION. 107 

The development of special characters in onr do- 
mestic animals, and their consequent improvement in 
a particular direction, is apparently limited by the ten- 
dency to diverse variations, from the increased sensi- 
tiveness of the organization to the influence of modi- 
fying agencies, and the defective equilibrium of the 
organization arising from the excessive predominance 
of a single character. If a variation in a special direc- 
tion is made at the expense of constitutional vigor, 
integrity of the nutritive organs, and fecundity, it be- 
^comes an abnormal character that cannot be perpetu- 
ated/ 

^ Inherited characteristics may for a time antagonize and keep in 
check the tendency to variation that arises in a change of surrounding 
conditions. Heredity tends to perpetuate the established habits, and 
is thus brought in conflict with the influences of the new environment. 
The latter will, however, prevail, unless particular care is taken to 
strengthen the hereditary proclivity by vigorous and systematic selec- 
tion. This struggle of diverse tendencies is " curiously illustrated in 
the case of some Australian acacias that were introduced to theNeil- 
gherries of India in 1845. At home these ti-ees flower in October, 
which is there a spring month. The transplanted acacias continued in 
India to flower in October till about 1860, when they were observed to 
flower in September ; in 18V0 they flowered in August ; in 1878 they 
flowered in July ; and lastly, in 1882, they began to flower in June, the 
spring month which corresponds most nearly with the Australian Oc- 
tober. The trees imported since 1845 have not yet gone so far back 
in the time of their flowering." {Popular Science Monthly, April, 1883, 
p. 864.) 



CHAPTEE YIII. 

FECUNDITY. _ 

The conditions of the animal organization that 
have an influence upon the function of reproduction 
seem to require more than a passing notice. The fer- 
tility of animals is frequently influenced by changes 
in their surroundings and habits that cannot, in them- 
selves, be considered unfavorable to the healthy action 
of the system. 

It has been observed that the procreative powers 
are impaired, or even entirely wanting, in many wild 
species, when placed in confinement. The elephant, 
the tiger, squirrels, monkeys, parrots, and many other 
animals, it is said, rarely, if ever, breed when subject- 
ed to man's control. Mr. Darwin, on the authority of 
Mr. Bartlett, records the remarkable fact that " lions 
breed more freely in traveling collections than in the 
Zoological Gardens." ^ 

The flying-squirrel, when breeding in captivity, 
has not been known to produce more than two young 
at a birth, w^hile in a state of nature it produces from 
three to six.^ 

" The African ostrich, though perfectly healthy 

* "Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. ii., p. 185 
^ Darwin, loc. cit., p. IST. 



FECUNDITY. 109 

and living long, in tlie south of France never lays 
more than from twelve to fifteen eggs, though in its 
native country it lays from twenty-five to thirty." ^ 

Lord Somerville says the Spanish mermo sheep, 
in England, when first imported, had a tendency to 
barrenness and " there was a great deficiency of milk 
in the ewes," "" which he attributes to the severe jour- 
neys the sheep were accustomed to make in Spain. 
As a deficiency in the secretion of milk and a ten- 
dency to barrenness have not been observed in these 
sheep when removed to other countries, these defects 
in England must have been owing to a change in the 
conditions of hfe, rather than to a previous habit of 
the system. 

According to M. Roulin, " in the hot valleys of 
the equatorial Cordilleras, sheep are not fully fecund," 
and geese, taken to the lofty plateau of Bogota, did 
not at first breed well.' 

Mr. Darwin says : " In Europe close confinement 
has a marked effect on the fertility of the fowl : it has 
been found in France that, with fowls allowed con- 
siderable freedom, only twenty per cent, of the eggs 
failed ; when allowed less freedom forty per cent, 
failed ; and, in close confinement, sixty out of the 
hundred were not hatched." * 

Mr. Darwin was assured that "those animals 
which usually breed freely under confinement, rarely 

1 Darwin, loc. cit, p. 191. 

* Somerville's " Facts and Observations," p. 14 ; quoted in Youatt 
on "Sheep," p. 181. 

3 " Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. ii., p. 197. 

* Zoc, cil,, p. 198. 



110 PRINCIPLES OP STOCK-BREEDING. 

breed, in the Zoological Gardens, within a year or two 
after their first importation,*' and he adds that, " when 
an animal which is generally sterile under confinement 
happens to breed, the young apparently do not inherit 
this power, for, had this been the case, various quad- 
rupeds and birds, which are valuable for exhibition, 
would have become common." ^ 

" The carnivora in the Zoological Gardens were 
formerly less freely exposed to the air and cold than 
at present ; and this change of treatment, as I was as- 
sured by the former superintendant, Mr. Miller, great- 
ly increased their fertility." ^ 

From the preceding statements it might be in- 
ferred that the state of domestication was not favor- 
able to fertility; but we find, nevertheless, that do- 
mesticated varieties are more prolific than w^ild species. 
Tame geese and ducks lay many more eggs than wild 
ones. Dogs have a larger number of young at a birth 
than their wild cousins, the wolf and the fox. 

The tame varieties of swine are more prolific than 
wild species. " The wild rabbit is said generally to 
breed four times yearly, and to produce from four to 
eight young ; the tame rabbit breeds six or seven 
times yearly, and produces from four to eleven young." 

"Wild pigeons do not breed so often as tame varie- 
ties, and Macgillivray states that, while the wild rock- 
pigeon breeds but twice a year. " the same pair, when 
tamed, generally breed four times." ' 

* Zoc. cii., p. 195. 
2 Ibid., p. 185. 

^ "Principles of Biology," vol. ii., p. 467; "Animala and Plants 
under Domestication," vol. ii., p. 139. 



FECUNDITY. HI 

The greater fecunditj of domesticated varieties, 
as compared witli tliat of wild species, is, in great 
measure, owing to a better supply of food throiigliont 
the year, and the more uniform conditions in which 
they are placed. 

The activity of the reproductive organs is neces- 
sarily dependent upon the function of nutrition which 
supplies the materials concerned in its operations. 

Dr. Carpenter says, " There is a certain degree of 
antagonism between the nutritive and the generative 
functions, the one set being executed at the expense 
of the other." ' 

A certain activity of the nutritive functions is re- 
quired to secure the greatest fertility in both plants 
and animals. When the function of nutrition is im- 
paired by disease, or when the supply of food is not 
sufficient for the wants of the system, the reproduc- 
tive powers suffer a corresponding decrease in their 
activity. 

Sheep bred on rich pastures are more likely to 
produce twin lambs than those gaining a scanty sub- 
sistence in less favored localities. 

It is said that, "among the barren hills of the 
west of Scotland, two lambs will be borne by about 
one ewe in twenty, whereas in England something 
like one ewe in three will bear two lambs." " 

While full feeding seems to increase the fecundity 
of varieties, any excess in the nutritive activity of the 
system will as readily impair the powers of reproduc- 
tion. 

* "Comparative Physiology." p. 147. 

* "Principles of Biology," vol. ii.. p. 459. 



112 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

In flowering plants, "it is well known that an 
over-supply of nntriment will cause an evolution of 
leaves at the expense of the flowers, so that what actu- 
ally would have been flower-buds are converted into 
leaf -buds ; or, the parts of the flower essentially con- 
cerned in reproduction, namely, the stamens and pistil, 
are converted into f oliaceous expansions, as in the pro- 
duction of ' double ' flowers from ' single ' ones by cul- 
tivation ; or, the fertile florets of the ' disk,' in com- 
posite species, such as the dahlia, are converted into 
the barren but expanded florets of the 'ray.' And 
the gardener who wishes to render a tree more pro- 
ductive of fruit is obliged to restrain its luxuriance by 
pruning, or to limit its supply of food by trenching 
around the roots." 

" During the period of rapid growth, when all the 
energies of the system are concentrated upon the per- 
fection of its individual structure, the reproductive 
system remains dormant, and is not aroused until the 
diminished activity of the nutritive functions allows 
it to be exercised without injury to them." ^ 

"While the period of rapid growth is not favorable 
to the development of the reproductive powers, from 
the great preponderance in the system of the nutritive 
functions, it will also be found that any marked de- 
ficiency in the processes of nutrition, as in the decline 
of life, will result in a decrease and final loss of fer- 
tility. The age of an animal will thus have an impor- 

^ Carpenter's " Comparatire Physiology," p. 14Y. Root-pruning, as 
a remedy for " unf ruitfulnesse in trees," was recommended by Sir 
Hugh Plat, in his " Garden of Eden," fifth edition, published in London, 
1659, p. 162. 



FECUNDITY. 113 

tant influence on f ecnndity, tlirougli tiie variations in- 
volved in the nutritive functions. 

In a preceding chapter (page 36) the relations of 
age to fecundity have been noticed, in discussing the 
influence of immaturity in the parents upon the de- 
velopment of their offspring. 

It was there shown that the eggs of young animals 
were comparatively small and few in number. 

The sow and the bitch, breeding at an early age, 
have comparatively few young in a litter ; at the pe- 
riod of maturity the number reaches a maximum, and, 
at an advanced age, the number is diminished. " The 
young hamster produces only from three to six young 
ones, while that of a more advanced age produces 
from eight to sixteen." ^ 

Similar variations in the number of young at dif- 
ferent ages have been observed in other animals. 

The quality of food seems to exercise an influence 
on the reproductive functions, but the data for a full 
discussion of the subject are as yet wanting. In the 
development of the bee, the form of the cell and the 
character of the food determine the fertility or non- 
fertility of the perfect insect, and it is also claimed 
that in insects the sex is, in some cases, determined 
by the process of nutrition.'* 

A large proportion of sugar in the food is supposed 
to interfere with the reproductive functions.'' 

Prof. Tanner, in his paper on the reproductive 
powers of animals, says : " The general system of diet 

* "Principles of Biology," vol. ii., p. 438. 
^ TJie Popular Science Monthly^ April, 1874, p. 761. 
^ Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society^ 1865, p. 267. 
6 



114 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

must also be looked upon as taking its share in influ- 
encing the reproductive functions. When the faU of 
rain has been small, and the herbage more than usu- 
ally parched, we find unusual diflSculty in getting ordi- 
nary farm-stock to breed — a dry dietary is very un- 
favorable for breeding animals, and very much retards 
successful impregnation. On the other hand, rich, 
juicy, and succulent vegetation is very generally favor- 
able to breeding. Apart, therefore, from the direct 
influence of the food given, it is certain that the con- 
dition in which it is consumed materially influences 
the breeding powers." ^ 

Mr. Mills, in his " Treatise on Cattle," published 
in 1Y76, remarks that " mares which have been brought 
up in the stable on dry food, and afterward turned to 
grass, do not breed at first ; some time is required to 
accustom them to this new aliment." ^ 

In the wild species that breed twice a year it has 
been stated that the time of breeding is determined 
by the abundance of food ; but this does not appear 
to be the case with migratory birds, in which the im- 
pulse to nest-building and migration occur together, 
at an early period in the spring, before they can ob- 
tain an abundant supply of food. 

There seems to be a marked relation between the 
size of animals and their fecundity, which may per- 
haps be owing, in part at least, to the modifying influ- 
ence of the nutritive functions. Throughout the en- 
tire animal kingdom the small species of animals ap- 
pear to be more prolific than large ones, and, as a rule, 

* Journal of the Royal Agricultural Sodety^ 1865, p. 269. 
2 Loc. cit., p. 66. 



FECUNDITY. 115 

they breed at an earlier age, and at shorter intervals, 
and produce a greater number of young at a birth. 

The elephant, the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, 
the camel, and the dromedary, produce but one at a 
birth ; the cow, the red-deer, the sheep, the llama, the 
mare, and the ass, produce onfe or occasionally two; 
the goat, the roe-deer, and the chamois, produce two 
or three; the cat, the fox, the jackal, the tiger, the 
lion, and the bear, produce from two to six ; the dog 
and the wolf, from Rye to ten ; the wild-boar, from 
four to ten ; and the domestic sow, from eight to sev- 
enteen ; while the smaller rodents have produced as 
many as nineteen young at a birth. 

The larger animals, as the great pachyderms, the 
solipeds, and the ruminants, breed but once a year; 
while the smaller mammals breed two or three times 
in a year.' 

Among mammals, swine, and a few domesticated 
varieties, present almost the only exceptions to the 
prevailing inverse relation of size to fecundity. The 
larger birds are less prolific than the smaller species, 
while among the most minute members of the ani- 
mal kingdom the most astonishing fecundity is ob- 
served. 

In the cases of diminished fecundity from over- 
feeding, or from an abnormal activity of the nutritive 
functions, a plethoric condition of the system is pro- 
duced that may, in itself, impair the vigor of the re- 
productive powers, or lead to the development of local 

* Colin, "Physiologie comparee," tome ii., p. 531 ; Spencer's "Prin- 
ciples of Biology," vol. ii., pp. 435, 436; "Animals and Plants under 
Domestication," vol, ii., p. 139. 



116 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

congestion and inflammation that interfere with the 
activity of the function. 

In quite a number of cases of barrenness, in highly- 
fed and plethoric animals, that have come under my 
observation, the defect was clearly attributable to an 
extreme irritability of the organs of generation, result- 
ing from congestion or local inflammation. 

In some of these cases congestion of the mucous 
membrane of the vagina and mouth of the uterus was 
the only abnormal peculiarity that could be detected, 
while in others there was congestion of the ovaries, or 
deposits of tuberculous matter involving a large pro- 
portion of their tissues. 

In this connection, we should not overlook the fact 
that the highly-artificial conditions to which animals 
are subjected, to secure the development of special 
characters, render the system exceedingly sensitive to 
the influence of the acknowledged causes of the scrofu- 
lous habit. 

Even when the unsymmetrical development of the 
organization does not proceed far enough to produce 
an unhealthy condition of any of the reproductive 
organs, it may constitute a predisposing tendency to 
disease that is -liable to be made active by slight ex- 
citing causes. 

A long series of derangements of the organs of 
generation, of every grade of intensity, may thus arise, 
directly or indirectly, through the influence of the de- 
fective equilibrium of the system, produced by pam- 
pering and over-feeding. 

If the procreative functions are impaired by a 
plethoric condition of the system, without complica- 



FECUNDITY. 117 

tions from local disease, tlie defect may be corrected in 
many instances by active exercise, low diet, or deple- 
tion ; but when tlie local derangements of the system 
are the result of disease it will be difficult to restore 
the normal activity of the function, even under the 
most skillful treatment. 

A remarkable development of the tendency to lay 
on fat is usually accompanied by a delicacy of consti- 
tution, a diminished secretion of milk, and a loss of 
fecundity. 

It is a popular notion that very fat animals are not 
likely to be good breeders, and when, even in flocks 
and herds that are not highly bred, a marked ten- 
dency to lay on fat is observed in precocious females, 
their ability to breed is often called in question. The 
general prevalence of such opinions seems to indicate 
that experience has shown that the excessive produc- 
tion of fat is incompatible with a high development 
of the reproductive powers ; and it is for this reason 
that objections are made to what is called " show con- 
dition " in breeding stock. 

Prof. Tanner, one of the best authorities on this 
subject, says : " The non-impregnation of the female 
may generally be traced to an excessive fatness in one 
or both of the animals, and an absence of constitu- 
tional vigor. The breeding powers are most energetic 
when the animals are in moderate condition, uninflu- 
enced either by extreme fatness or leanness." ^ 

The antagonism of the reproductive functions and 
the " fatty diathesis " is shown in the fact, well known 
to feeders, that the removal of the ovaries of the fe- 

* Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 1865, p. 266. 



118 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

male, or of tlie testicles of tlie male, gives an increased 
tendency to fatten. 

The influence of an excessive deposition of fat in 
tlie tissues upon the general health and activity of the 
system is thus referred to by Dr. Cragie, in liis paper 
on " Adipose Tissue : " 

" In persons of this description, who, it is matter 
of common observation, are generally not only pleth- 
oric but bloated, and liable to imperfect circulation, 
and disorders of the circulation and secretions gener- 
ally, and in whom very slight causes often induce 
serious disorders, the adipose tissue appears to lose a 
great proportion of the small degree of vital energy 
which it possesses ; and the more abundant its secreted 
product is, the less active are its vessels and the in- 
herent properties of the membrane. 

" In consequence of this greatly-impaired energy, 
slight causes, as cold, injury, punctures, etc., produce 
suddenly a complete loss of circulation and action in 
the tissues — for it is not increased but diminished 
action — and this impaired energy continues until the 
natural function of the tissue becomes extinct." As 
to the formation of fat, he adds: "In females and 
eunuchs it is more abundant than in males; in fe- 
males deprived of the ovaries it is more abundant 
than in those possessed of those organs, and it is well 
known that sterility is frequent among the corpulent 
of both sexes." ^ 

In many instances the integrity of important or- 
gans is impaired by deposits of fat, or by the actual 
transformation of their substance into fatty tissue, 

* " Cyclopsedia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. i., p. 62. 



FECUNDITY. IJ^g 

whicL. is known to medical men as " fattj degenera- 
tion." Dr. Carpenter says : " There is one remark- 
able form of degeneration, however, wliich is common 
to nearly all tissues, and wMch seems to occur, as a 
normal alteration, in many of them at an advanced 
period of life ; this consists in the conversion of their 
albuminous or gelatinous materials into fat, thus con- 
stituting what is known as fatty degeneration. That 
this change is not due to the removal of the normal 
components of the tissues, and the substitution of 
newly-deposited fatty matter in their place, but is (in 
most cases at least) the result of a real conversion of 
the one class of substance into the other, has been 
already pointed out;" and he further remarks that 
" there is reason to believe that ' fatty degeneration,' 
the form under which degeneration most commonly 
presents itseK, is in reality far more frequent than 
simple wasting of the tissues ; but it attracts less no- 
tice because their bulk is little or not at all diminished, 
and it is only when their function becomes impaired 
that attention is seriously drawn to the change." ^ 

Dr. Flint, one of the best authorities on the sub- 
ject of physiology, says fat " does not take part in the 
nutrition of the parts that are endowed, to an eminent 
degree, with the so-called vital functions ; and, when 
these tissues are brought to the highest point of func- 
tional development, the fat is entirely removed from 
their substance. Long disuse of any part wiH produce 
such changes in its power of appropriating nitrogen- 
ized material for its regeneration that it soon becomes 
atrophied and altered. Instead of the normal nitro- 

* "Human Physiology," pp. 553, 659. 



120 rrviNCiPLEs op stock-breeding. 

genized elements of tlie tissue, we have, iiiider these 
circumstances, a deposition of fatty matter. The fat 
is here inert, and takes the place of the substance that 
gives to the part its characteristic function. These 
phenomena are strikingly apparent in muscles that 
have been long disused or paralyzed, or in nerves that 
have lost their functional activity. If the change be 
not too extensive the fat may be made to disappear, 
and the part will return to its normal constitution by 
appropriate exercise ; but frequently the alteration 
has proceeded so far as to be irremediable and per- 
manent." ^ 

The reproductive organs of very fat animals are 
frequently affected with fatty degeneration, to an ex- 
tent that impairs or entirely destroys their functional 
activity. 

In a valuable paper on " The Heproductive Pow- 
ers of Animals," Prof. Tanner says : " For the pur- 
pose of more fully investigating the causes of barren- 
ness, I have examined the ovaries of several heifers 
which were, after a very careful trial, condemned and 
killed as barreners, and I have every reason to believe 
that by far the larger proportion were naturally quite 
competent for breeding, and that, in the majority of 
cases, non-impregnation arose from the seminal fluid 
never reaching the ovum, which was ready for fertili- 
zation, or from that fluid not being of a healthy char- 
acter. 

" In some cases in which the ova were, to all ap- 
pearances, perfectly healthy, the tubes — ^whereby the 
seminal fluid should have been conveyed — were so 

^ Flint's "Physiology of Man "—" Nutrition," p. 381. 



FECUNDITY. 121 

overcharged with f attj matter that impregnation was 
rendered impossible. 

" In other cases the ovaries were in an unhealthy 
condition, either one or both having, to a great extent, 
wasted away. Sometimes one of the ovaries had been 
suffering from atrophy, and the other in such an irri- 
table and sensitive condition that it might be almost 
described as inflamed, and under such circumstances 
the formation of a healthy ovum could be scarcely ex- 
pected. In other instances the ovaries had become 
considerably enlarged, in consequence of a fatty de- 
generation of these organs having taken place." ^ 

It is to be regretted that the condition of these 
animals, in regard to fattening tendency and constitu- 
tional peculiarities, is not given in the above cases, as 
it would aid us in determining the cause of the ob- 
served pathological conditions. Of the cases of bar- 
ren females that I have had an opportunity to investi- 
gate, the defect was attributable, in about equal pro- 
portions, to fatty degeneration of the ovaries, scrofu- 
lous tumors of the ovaries, and congestion and chronic 
inflammation of the uterus and its appendages — all of 
which were apparently the result of an excessive de- 
velopment of the tendency to fatten. 

"When the fatty degeneration, or the scrofulous 
tumors, were confined to one ovary, its fellow was 
usually the seat of congestion or chronic inflammation, 
and thus unfitted to develop a healthy ovum. 

From the correlated relations of the functions of 
nutrition and reproduction, it will be seen that great 
activity of the fat-producing functions, even when not 

* Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society^ 1865, p. 266. 



122 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

accompanied by local disease, will involve a corre- 
sponding decrease in the activity of the reproductive 
powers. 

From the antagonistic conditions presented in the 
law of correlation, it will perhaps be impossible to 
secure the highest type of perfection in the produc- 
tion of fat without impairing, to some extent at least, 
the functions of the reproductive organs. 

We have already noticed the apparent incompati- 
bility of the fat and the milk producing functions, and 
we find also that a diminished secretion of milk is 
often observed in animals that are not prolific, while 
the best breeders are usually good milkers. Prof. 
Tanner, in his paper which we have already noticed, 
says ; " The formation of milk is intimately connected 
with the reproductive powers. The secretion of milk 
is dependent upon the activity of the mammary 
glands, and these are either under the direct influence 
of the breeding-organs, or else they sympathize very 
closely with them. Those animals which breed with 
the least difficulty yield the best supplies of milk, and 
produce the most healthy and vigorous offspring. 

" l!Tow, it must be admitted that, however much 
we have improved the symmetry and feeding power 
of stock, we have suffered them to deteriorate in value 
as breeding animals, by the decrease of their milking 
capabilities. In proportion as we adopt a more natu- 
ral system of management, for the purpose of keeping 
stock in a healthy and vigorous breeding condition, so 
shall we reap the indirect benefit of a better supply of 
milk. It is true that a deficiency in the yield of milk 
may be met by other resources, but, since a short sup- 



FECUNDITY. 123 

plj of milk is indicative of, and associated with, en- 
feebled breeding powers, every care should be taken 
to obviate this defect." ^ 

In the human family, as the physical organization, 
in structm-e and function, does not essentially differ 
from that of the lower animals, the same causes of 
impaired fertility will be operative, if the habits and 
conditions of life do not present a wide departure 
from those that prevail in a state of nature. 

With an advance in civilization, however, when 
the mental faculties attain a high degree of develop- 
ment, and the physical activity of the system is inten- 
sified through the action of the nervous system, a new 
element of variation is introduced, that disturbs the 
equilibrium of the system and increases the activity 
of the various causes that interfere with the procrea- 
tive functions. 

In a work published nearly one hundred years ago, 
Dr. Black remarked that " high refinement is an ob- 
stacle to propagation." In a paper read before the 
Statistical Society, in 1843, Sir John Boileau says : 
" It is a fact that rich families, taken in general, are 
those which have the fewest children ; and their ranks 
would become thinner, generation after generation, if 
they were not gradually recruited by new families of 
recently-acquired wealth. 

" The effect which riches have in restraining the 
fecundity of marriages is nowhere more apparent than 
in Paris. The most opulent families of France con- 
gregate there, and, as they select certain quarters of 
the town for their residence, the facts brought out in 

* Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society^ 1865, p. 270. 



124: PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

them are more remarkable and complete than any- 
where. 

" I^ow, by the investigations made tinder the di- 
rection of the Comte de Chabrol, the average of births 
to a marriage is, in the different arrondissements, in 
regular inverse proportion to the easy or opulent cir- 
cumstances of the population. In the first four ar- 
rondissements united, which are those where the most 
opulent families reside, the number of children to a 
marriage is only 1.97 ; that of the four poorest arron- 
dissements, on the contrary, is 2.86 ; and the differ- 
ence between the two arrondissements placed at the 
extremities of the scale is as 1.87 to 3.23, or more 
than 73 per cent. 

" These facts deserve the more attention because, in 
spite of the reasons which determine the inhabitants 
of Paris to choose peculiar localities, according to their 
respective circumstances, some poor families will be 
found in the quarters inhabited by the rich, and some 
rich families in the quarters occupied by the poor ; 
which fact necessarily diminishes the difference we 
should establish if it were possible to separate com- 
pletely the different classes of the population. We 
arrive at this important consideration that, if the 
second, third, tenth, and first arrondissements, where 
the richest famihes in Paris reside, were not continu- 
ally recruited from families freshly acquiring wealth, 
the actual number of inhabitants would not be main- 
tained. JN'ot only the children born there are less 
numerous than their parents, but, as we must deduct 
those who die in infancy, or who never marry — and 
that we must estimate these at least at a quarter of 



FECUNDITY. 125 

the whole, in a town where thirteen children out of 
twentj-nine do not live to twentj-one — it follows 
that in three generations, or the space of a century, 
the population would be reduced to half its num- 
ber." 

Mr. G. R. Porter, in his " Progress of the !Kation," 
sajs, " Frequently, and indeed almost always, in old- 
settled countries, the proportionate number of births 
decreases with the advance of civilization and the 
more general diffusion of the conveniences and luxu- 
ries of life." ^ 

Other wi-iters speak of the generally acknowledged 
influence of the plethoric condition of the system that 
prevails among the wealthy, in producing diminished 
fecundity. It does not, however, follow from the 
facts stated that privation and want are favorable to 
fertility, as the reverse is true. It is a well-known 
fact that famines not only diminish population by an 
increased death-rate, but also by a diminution of the 
birth-rate.^ 

In the absence of those special conditions that an- 
tagonize the procreative functions, the greatest fecun- 
dity may be expected when the food-supply is suffi- 
cient for the wants of the system, and active habits of 
life conduce to a healthy performance of the various 
organic functions. 

There are facts that seem to show that an improved 
condition of the system, resulting from a better food- 
supply after a period of privation and even of disease, 

^ The last three quotations have been copied from Walford's " In- 
surance Cyclopaedia," vol. iii., pp. 185, 190. 

^ Walford, " Insurance Cyclopaedia," vol. iii., p. 163. 



126 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

may produce an uimsiial activity of tlie functions of 
reproduction. 

The unusually rapid increase of population, after 
a country lias been scourged by a famine or pestilence, 
has often been remarked. 

After the plague of 1348 in England, the " flocks 
and herds wandered about at will, without herdsmen, 
shepherd, or owner," and labor was so scarce that 
landlords were glad to have their lands cultivated by 
their tenants without payment of rent. Population, 
however, speedily righted itself. " We are told that 
after the plague double and triple births were fre- 
quent, that most marriages were fertile, and that no 
serious effects were produced, in a short time, on the 
numbers of the people." ^ 

In examining the various causes of impaired fe- 
cundity, we must not lose sight of the influence of 
the transmission of ancestral tendencies and peculi- 
arities. 

If the ancestors of an animal are not prolific, it 
will inherit a bias of the organization that is favorable 
to the action of the various causes of sterility and bar- 
renness ; that is, the natural tendency or predisposi- 
tion of the organization will, as it were, add to the 
intensity of the forces that interfere with the normal 
performance of the function of reproduction, and thus 
aid in its suppression. 

The production of twins will be found to depend, 
not only upon the supply of food, as already noticed, 
but on pecuharities of the system that have been in- 
herited. 
* Rogers, " History of Agriculture and Prices," vol. i., pp. 299-301. 



FECUNDITY. 127 

" Osiander ^ relates the case of a woman who, in 
eleven accouchements^ had given birth to thirty-two 
children, was herseK born with three other twins, and 
her mother had had thirty-eight children ; another 
woman, delivered of five children at a birth, had a 
sister who was delivered of three ; and lately at 
Rouen, twin sisters gave birth to twins on the same 
day.'* Mr. J. Lewis Brittain ' related last year, at the 
Edinburgh Obstetrical Society, the case of a woman 
who had twins eleven times, and whose mother had 
had twins twice ; and the report states that ' several 
of the members mentioned that they knew of some 
analogous cases.' " 

'' Dr. Mitchell, in a paper on ' Plural Births in Con- 
nection with Idiocy,' * cites the following cases : The 
mother of an idiot, twin-born, bore twins twice, the 
maternal grandmother once, one maternal aunt twice, 
another once, and a sister once ; in a second case the 
mother was herself one of twins, and she bore twins 
once, and, in a third case of a twin-born idiot, the 
aunt had borne twins ; while among the cases in which 
the idiot was not twin-born, in one the mother and 
the maternal grandmother each bore twins twice ; in 
a second case the mother and the maternal grand- 
mother each bore twins once, and a maternal aunt 
twice ; in a third case the mother and three maternal 
aunts each bore twins once ; in a fourth case the 
mother bore twins once, and a maternal aunt bore 

^ "Handbuch der Entbindungskunst," Band i., pp. 316, 317. 
^ British Medical Journal, November 30, 1861, p. 598. 
^ Edinburgh Medical Journal, 1862, p. 468. 
* Medical Times and Gazette, 1862, p. 618. 



128 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

twins four times running ; and in a fiftli case the 
mother and two sisters of the idiot each bore twins 
once. 

" It is also well known that the hereditary produc- 
tion of twins in sheep is encouraged bj saving the 
ewe-lambs that are twins. ^ l^otwithstanding these 
facts, there are some cases which show that twins oc- 
casionally owe their descent as such to the male line, 
of which the following case affords a good illustra- 
tion : Two brothers (twins) both had twins by their 
wives many times in succession ; the wife of one of 
them having died, the second wife produced, like the 
first, twins ; ^ and, in the case recorded by Mr. Stocks,' 
of Salford, twin brothers also produced twins ; one of 
them having a family of ten children, eight daughters 
and two sons, all of whom were twin-born ; and the 
other a family of eleven children, of whom eight were 
twin bom ; it is, moreover, to be noticed that in this 
last case, while five of the female twins in the suc- 
ceeding generation produced twins at their first birth, 
the three children of the only one of the male twins 
of whom any account is given, were all born singly, 
leading us to infer that the hereditary predisposition 
to twins was probably derived from a female ances- 
tor, and that each of the twin brothers referred to, in 
addition to being the medium of transmission, also 
shared in the inheritance. 

" In connection also with the influence of sex in the 

1 "Notes on Fields and Cattle," by Rev. W. H. Beever, 1862, p. 
144. 

2 "Nouvelle Dictionnaire d'Histoire Naturelle," tome xii., p. 6^6. 

3 Lancet, July 20, 1861, p. '78. 



FECUNDITY. 129 

production of twins, it is necessary to notice the popu- 
lar error respecting the alleged barrenness of females 
who have themselves been bom as twins with male 
children, for it is still customary among nurses and 
midwives, in some places, to talk somewhat disrespect- 
fully of such females, as disqualified for the marriage 
state, in consequence of their supposed inability to 
have children. 

" This error, which probably arose from the well- 
established fact of the barrenness of the free-martin 
(the imperfect cow-calf twin with a bull-calf), was re- 
futed by Mr. Cribb, in a paper published in 1823,^ 
which contains six cases of such females becoming 
mothers. 

" Dr. Sieveking has informed me of a case in which 
a woman, twin with a male, subsequently gave birth 
to twins ; and any remaining doubt on the subject is 
removed by the fact that such females have on some 
occasions become even more than usually prolific, as 
in the case which occurred near Maidenhead,'^ of quad- 
ruplets, consisting of three boys and one girl, who 
were all reared, and the only female in this quartet 
subsequently became the mother of triplets, consisting 
of two boys and one girl." ' 

The following remarkable case would need to be 
well authenticated to entitle it to credence : " The 

1 London Medical Repository, 1823, pp. 213-216. 
5 Ibid., 1827, p. 350. 

2 In the above quotation from Mr. Sedgwick's paper, British mid 
Foreign Medico- Chirurgical Revieii\ July, 1863, pp. lYO, 171, the origi- 
nal sources from which the cases were compiled are cited in the foot- 
notes. 



130 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

Boston Medical and Surgical Journal stated that on 
the 21st of August, 1872, Mrs. Timothy Bradler, of 
Trumbull County, Ohio, gave birth to eight children 
— three boys and five girls. They were all living and 
healthy, but quite small. She was married six years 
previously, and weighed two hundred and seventy-three 
pounds on the day of her marriage. She has given 
birth to two pairs of twins, and now eight more, making 
twelve children in six years. Mrs. Bradler was one 
of a triplet, her mother and her father being twins, and 
her grandmother the mother of five pairs of twins." ' 

" In a remarkable instance which occurred in the 
city of E'ew York, the mother had twelve children 
within four years after her second marriage, at four 
births, there having been twins at the first, triplets at 
the second and third, and quadruplets at the fourth. 
The first (twin) birth occurred at the age of thirty- 
five ; she had previously given birth to seven children, 
one only at a time." ^ 

" A still more remarkable case occurred in Mercer 
County, Pennsylvania, in 1816, ten children having 
been born within twelve months, five at each of two 
births. The mother died about a year after the second 
birth, but meantime gave birth to twins ; or twelve 
children in twenty months. She was thirty-seven 
years old at her death." ^ 

^ British Ifedical Journal, November, 1872, as quoted in "Walford's 
"Insurance Cyclopaedia," vol. iii., article "Fecundity," p. 200, where a 
large number of cases of multiple births are recorded, including twen- 
ty-five cases of triplets, thirteen of quartets, three of quintets, and one 
each of six, eight, and ten, at a birth. 

* Dr. E. R. Peaslee, Johnson's " Universal Cyclopaedia," article 
"Gestation." » Ibid., loc. cit. 



FECUNDITY. 131 

" An instance is mentioned in the Bulletin des Sci- 
ences of a cow belonging to a French agriculturist, 
which produced nine calves at three successive births, 
namely, four at the first, three at the second, and two 
at the third ; all of which, except two of the first birth, 
grew up and were nursed bj the mother ; but the heif- 
ers afterward produced each only a single calf." ^ 

According to CuUey, the Teeswater ewes " gener- 
ally bring two lambs each, and sometimes three ; there 
are instances of even four or five, as was the case with 
Mr. Edward Eddison's ewe, which, when two years 
old, in 17Y2, brought him four lambs ; in 1773, five ; 
in 1774, two ; in 1775, five ; in 1776, two ; and in 
1777, two. The first nine lambs were lambed within 
eleven months." ' 

A ewe belonging to James Wilkie, Esq., of the 
county of Berwick, Scotland, " produced eleven lambs 
in the course of three immediately succeeding seasons. 
In the spring of 1803, she had four lambs ; in 1804, 
three ; and again four in 1806. She was of the or' 
dinary breed of the lower part of the country." * 

Mr. Kerr remarks in regard to these sheep that 
" ill-fed ewes hardly ever have twins, while those that 
are in good condition, when put to the ram, very often 
have twins, and sometimes triplets." 

" In 1806, in a flock of ]N"orfolk ewes belonging to 
Mr. "Wythe, of Eye, one on the 18th of February yeaned 
three lambs ; on the 20th another dropped three, and 
a third, five, on the 21st ; a fourth, four, on the 23d ; 

^ " British Husbandry," vol. ii., p. 438, note. 

2 CuUey on " Live-Stock," p. 123. 

3 Kerr's "Agricultural Survey of Berwickshire," p. 403. 



132 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

and on the same day a fifth produced three. On the 
25th a sixth ewe dropped three lambs ; and a seventh 
yielded four on the 27th. So that seven ewes yeaned 
twenty-five lambs, all of which were reared." ^ 

" Last week a ewe, belonging to Mr. Kitter, yeaned 
five lambs ; she also brought five lambs last year, and 
four the year before ; i. e., fourteen lambs in three 
years, and not a weak or deformed one in the whole 
number." ^ 

"Mr. Meadows, of Salcey Forest, Northampton- 
shire, has a ewe which brought him three lambs in 
1802, four in 1803, four in 1804, and four in 1805 ; 
being fifteen lambs in four years." ^ 

Some breeds of sheep, as the Mendip and Dor- 
sets, mentioned by Youatt, breed twice a year, and he 
gives the following instance in another breed : "In 
the spring of 1801, Mr. Sheriff, of Kinmyles, Inver- 
ness, bought a parcel of ewes in lamb, of the white- 
faced Highland breed. They lambed in March and 
April. One old ewe, without a tooth, dropped a 
second lamb on the 1st of J^ovember, 1801, a third 
on the^29th of April, 1802, and a fourth on the 12th 
of January, 1803 ; so that she reared four lambs at 
different times in the course of twenty-one months." * 

Rev. Gilbert White gives an account of a half- 
bred " Bantam " sow that was remarkable for her 

' "Annual Register," 1806 ; quoted in Youatt on " Sheep," p. 509. 

2 Gentleman's Magazine, March, 1*750 ; quoted in Youatt on " Sheep," 
p. 509. 

3 Agricultural Magazine, April, 1804 ; quoted in Youatt on "Sheep," 
p. 509. 

* Agricultural Magazine, February, 1803 ; quoted in Youatt on 
" Sheep," p. 509. 



FECUNDITY. I33 

fecundity and longevity : " For about ten years this 
prolific mother produced two litters in the year, of 
about ten at a time, and once above twenty at a litter ; 
but as there were near double the number of pigs to 
that of teats, many died. ... At the age of about 
fifteen, her litters began to be reduced to four or five, 
and such a litter she exhibited when in her fatting- 
pen. ... At a moderate computation, she was al- 
lowed to have been the fruitful parent of three hun- 
dred pigs — a prodigious instance of fecundity in so 
large a quadruped. She was killed in the spring of 
1775, when seventeen years old." * 

A remarkable instance of multiple births is re- 
ported in the Prairie Farmer, on the authority of 
the London Live-Stock Journal, as follows : " In the 
neighborhood of Hohenmath, Bavaria, a cow has re- 
cently been delivered of ^nq calves at a birth. All 
of them were born dead, and the mother succumbed 
a few days later. The calves weighed sixteen, seven- 
teen, eighteen, nineteen, and twenty pounds, respec- 
tively, and were all of the same color." " 

Dr. Simpson states that he has obtained authentic 
information in regard to forty-two married women 
who were " born as twins with males," and thirty-six 
of the number had children. " Two of the females 
who have families were each born as a triplet with 
two males." ' 

' "Natural History of Selborne," p. 222. "The Hog," by Youatt, 
p. 154. 

^Prairie Farmer, December 8, 18'7'7, p. 389. These eases are, 
perhaps, not all attributable to heredity. For additional cases of in^ 
herited fecundity, see p. 16. 

3 " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. i., p. 736. 



134: PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

Among cattle, where twin calves are produced, 
the one a male and the other a female, the latter, 
called a free-martin, is, as a rule, barren. When the 
twins are of the same sex, the reproductive powers 
are not impaired. 

In all other varieties of animals, so far as known, 
when males and females are born together as twins, 
the females are as prolific as if born singly. In free- 
martins the internal generative organs are generally 
imperfect, partaking of the characters of both male 
and female organs. In appearance these imperfect 
females frequently resemble steers, the feminine char- 
acteristics being mostly wanting.^ 

In rare instances the free-martin is capable of 
breeding, the reproductive organs not having become 
malformed from her intra-uterine development with a 
male. 

Youatt, in his work on " Cattle," gives but two 
cases of fertile free-martins. Dr. Hunter dissected a 
free-martin calf, that died when a month old, and 
found the sexual organs naturally constituted, and he 
also heard of two instances in Scotland of free-martins 
that were prolific. 

Dr. Maulson has likewise published similar cases 
in Loudon's Magazine of Natural History.^ 

A few additional cases might be gathered from 
the agricultural papers, but they only serve to show 
that fertility under such conditions is decidedly ex- 
ceptional. 

* " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. ii., pp. '701, 702, 
TSS, 736. Youatt on " Cattle," p. 538. 

* " Cyclopeedia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. ii., p. 735. 



FECUNDITY. I35 

Dr. Simpson, in liis valuable paper, from wliich 
we have already quoted, says : " As to the cause of 
the malformation and consequent infecundity of the 
organs of generation in the free-martin cow, we will 
not venture to offer any conjecture in explanation of 
it. 

" It appears to be one of the strangest facts in the 
whole range of teratological science, that the twin 
existence in utero of a male along with a female 
should entail upon the latter so great a degree of 
malformation in its sexual organs, and in its sexual 
organs only. The circumstance becomes only the 
more inexplicable when we consider this physiologi- 
cal law to be confined principally, or entirely, to the 
cow, and certainly not to hold with regard to sheep, 
or perhaps any other animal. The curiosity of the 
fact also becomes heightened and increased when we 
recollect that when the cow or any other uniparous 
animal has twins, both of the same sex, as two males 
or two females, these animals are always both perfect- 
ly formed in their sexual organization, and both ca- 
pable of propagating. In the course of making the 
preceding inquiries after females born co-twins with 
males in the human subject, we have had a very great 
number of cases of purely female and purely male 
twins mentioned to us, who had grown up and be- 
come married ; and in only two or three instances, at 
most, have we heard of an unproductive marriage 
among such persons. Further, we may in conclusion 
remark that, among the long list of individual cases 
of hermaphroditism in the human subject that we 
have had occasion to cite, we find only one instance 



136 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

in whicli the malformed being is stated to have been 
a twin. Katsky, however, Nargele, and Saviard, have 
each, as before stated, mentioned a case in which both 
twins were hermaphroditically formed in their sexual 
organs." ' 

It is worthy of mention, in this connection, that 
some authors assert that the production of twins in 
the human species is an abnormal peculiarity, and 
they claim that a larger proportion of idiots and im- 
beciles are twin-born than of those not thus affected, 
that the relatives of imbeciles and idiots frequently 
have twins, and that, in families where twins are fre- 
quently produced, bodily deformities are repeatedly 
observed.'' 

Dr. Duncan, in his work on " Fecundity, Fertility, 
and Sterility," is inclined to the belief that the pro- 
duction of twins in the human family is not x)nly 
abnormal, but that it cannot be relied upon as an indi- 
cation of great fecundity, as twins are usually pro- 
duced at longer intervals than single births, and that 
in the latter the entire period of child-bearing is like- 
ly to be more extended. 

^ Loc. dt.^ p. 736. 

2 See Dr. Arthur MitcheH's paper in the Medical Times and Gazette^ 
November 15, 1862, referred to in Walford's "Insurance Cyclopaedia," 
vol. iii., p. 192. 

For further illustra,tions of the influence of civilization on fecun- 
dity, see an article on " Changes in New England Population," by Dr. 
Nathan Allen, in Popdar Science Monthly, August, 1883, p. 433. 



CHAPTEE IX. 

IN-AND-IN BEEEDING. 

The term in-and-in breeding is generally used to 
indicate the breeding togetber of animals that are 
closely related. 

As to the degree of relationship, in the breeding 
of animals, to which this term should be applied, it 
not only appears that no definite rule has been estab- 
lished, but that almost every writer uses it with a dif- 
ferent shade of meaning. 

The prevailing differences of opinion in regard to 
the effects of in-and-in breeding have, to some extent 
at least, arisen from this diversity of meaning in the 
use of the term, and a misapprehension as to the real 
advantages that are aimed at in its practice.^ 

* In-and-in breeding has been defined as follows : " The breeding 
from close affinities "— Youatt on " Cattle," p. 525. " The breeding 
from close relations" — Johnson's "Farmers' Cyclopaedia," p. 248. 
" Breeding between relatives without reference to the degree of con- 
sanguinity"— Eandall's "Practical Shepherd," p. 116. "It should 
only be applied to animals of precisely the same blood as own brother 
and sister " — Bowly, Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society^ vol. 
xix., p. 149. " Breeding from the same family, or putting animals of 
the nearest relationship together " — Sinclair's " Code of Agriculture," 
p. 93. " The pairing of relations within the degree of second cousins, 
twice or more in succession " — Stonehenge on " The Horse," p. 140. 
7 



138 PKINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

Sir John SebrigM, whose successful practice gives 
the weight of authority to his opinions on this subject, 
is often quoted as an opponent of in-and-in breeding. 
He evidently, however, limits the application of the 
term to the frequent repetition of the closest rela- 
tionship in parents. He says : " Mr. Meynel's fox- 
hounds are likewise quoted as an instance of the 
success of this practice ; but, upon speaking to that 
gentleman upon the subject, I found that he did not 
attach the meaning that I do to the term in-and-in. 
He said that he frequently bred from the father and 
the daughter, and the mother and son. That is not 
what I consider as breeding in-and-in, for the daugh- 
ter is only half of the same blood as the father, and 
will probably partake, in a great degree, of the prop- 
erties of the mother. 

"Mr. Meynel sometimes bred from brother and 
sister; this, certainly, is what may be called a little 
close / but should they loth le very good, and partic- 
ularly should the same defects not predominate in 
both, but the perfections of the one promise to cor- 
rect in tlie produce the imperfections of the other, / 
do not tJiink it oljectioncible : much further than this, 
the system of breeding from the same family cannot, 
in my opinion, be pursued with safety." ^ 

He then proceeds to point out the difficulties that 
arise, in the practice of what he calls in-and-in breed- 
ing, from the rare instances in which breeding-ani- 
mals are found to be free from defects. 

If the terms inbreeding, close breeding, and in- 
terbreeding, are used to indicate the breeding to- 

* " The Art of improving the Breed of Domestic Animals," pp. 8, 9. 



IN-AND-IN BREEDING. I39 

getlier of closely -related animals in a single in- 
stance, or at long-separated intervals, the term in- 
and-in breeding could then be used with greater ex- 
actness to indicate the frequent repetition of the pro- 
cess. 

High breeding implies a careful selection of breed- 
ing-animals within the limits of a family, with refer- 
ence to a particular type, and regardless of relation- 
ships. High-bred animals are not necessarily in-and- 
in bred, although, from the system of selection prac- 
tised, they must be closely bred to a greater or less 
extent. 

The opponents of in-and-in breeding claim that it 
produces a delicacy of constitution — a predisposition 
to disease, and a lack of fecundity — and they often 
fall into the error of assuming that all who do not 
admit the truth of these claims are in favor of close 
breeding as a rule of practice. 

For the purpose of gaining, a knowledge of the 
principles involved in the breeding together of ani- 
mals that are closely related, we will first examine 
the practice of those who have gained a high repu- 
tation as breeders of domestic animals, and then 
consider the objections to their methods of improve- 
ment. 

From the time of Bakewell, the breeders who 
have gained the greatest reputation have evidently 
aimed to establish in their flocks and herds certain 
well-marked characters that adapted the animal to a 
particular purpose. 

In giving expression to their ideal type, or stand- 
ard of excellence, they found it necessary to limit 



140 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING, 

their selection of breeding-stock to the animals that 
had the characters they wished to perpetuate. As it 
was only among the animals descended from a com- 
mon ancestry — with the same hereditary tendencies — 
that the desired variations were found, they were 
frequently compelled to breed together animals that 
were more or less closely related. 

Their selections were made to secure in both 
j)arents the same general characteristics that they 
wished to obtain in their offspring, and the close re- 
lationships observed in their breeding-stock were but 
the necessary incidents of their practice. 

Close breeding with them was but a Tneans of im- 
provement, and not an end that was thought to be 
desirable in itseK. 

The true method of improvement practised by 
these eminent breeders is frequently misunderstood, 
and their intentions have, consequently, been misrep- 
resented. A friend of mine, on his return from 
England, told me that he had learned an important 
secret in breeding that he believed to be a prevail- 
ing rule among the best breeders. It was this : 
"Breed from haK brother and sister;" and an ex- 
amination of a large number of the most celebrated 
pedigrees apparently made the theory a plausible 
one. 

An incidental feature in the methodical improve- 
ment of animals had, however, been mistaken for the 
real causes of improvement, which were entirely over- 
looked. 

Animals are not improved by breeding except in 
the increased stabiKty gained in dominant characters, 



IN-AND-m BREEDING. 141 

and tlie certainty with wMcL. they are transmitted, as 
the offspring, at the time of birth, can only be pos- 
sessed of the characters they have derived from their 
ancestors. The true means of improvement have 
abeady been pointed out in the chapter on variation, 
and we must look upon methods of breeding solely 
with reference to the perpetuation of characters thus 
obtained. 

JSTo matter what opinions we may form as to the 
advantages or disadvantages of close breeding, the fact 
remains the same : that all the great breeders have 
practised it to a greater or less extent, and, as far as 
we are able to judge, with the same purpose — that of 
retaining and fixing in their floclvs and herds certain 
desirable characters that have been developed by mod- 
ified conditions. 

The extent to which in-and-in breeding has been 
practised by the breeders who have attained the great- 
est celebrity is shown in the accompanying diagrams.* 

The pedigrees in a number of the diagrams are 
arranged on a new plan; the name of each animal 
being given but once, while the lines are drawn so 
that the relationships can be readily traced. 

The pedigrees are selected to represent the most 
popular families of the leading breeds, as indicating 

^ Some of these diagrams were prepared to illustrate a lecture on 
" In-and-in Breeding," delivered by the author before the "American As- 
sociation of Breeders of Short-Horns," at their meeting in Cincinnati, 
December 3, 1873, and published in their Transactions. The lecture 
and diagram were also published in the " Report of the Michigan State 
Board of Agriculture for 18'72." The illustrations have been made use 
of in this chapter, but the matter has been entirely rewritten and ar- 
ranged to conform to the classification of topics in this work. 



142 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 




IN-AND-IN BREEDING. I43 

the uniformity of the practice in the improvement of 
all classes of animals. 

In all of the cases cited, the breeders evidently in- 
tended to hreed together animals of the same qualities^ 
regardless of relationshvp. 

In Diagram 1, the pedigree of Duke of Airdrie 
may be traced, beginning with the six animals at the 
extreme left of the diagram. 

In Diagram 2, the pedigrees of these same six ani- 
mals, arranged in a different order, may be traced back 
to Favorite by black lines, while the dotted lines if 
continued would run to Hubback. 

Certain animals in Diagram 1 are arranged in a 
different order, and taken for the basis of Diagram 3, 
which gives the pedigrees of some of the " ITew York 
Mills "herd. 

Diagram 8 gives the pedigree of a number of ani- 
mals bred by Charles and Eobert Colling. 

In all of the diagrams, the two lines coming to- 
gether at the left of a name trace respectively to the 
sire and dam, while the lines from the right of the 
name run to the offspring. 

The Booths practised close breeding to a great 
extent, as will be seen from an examination of the 
pedigree of their most noted animals. The pedi- 
gree of the sisters Queen of the May, Queen Mab, 
Queen of the Yale, and Queen of the Ocean ; and 
their brother, Lord of the Yalley (14837), bred by 
K. Booth, of Warlaby, is given in Diagram 4, on 
page 147. 

According to the calculations of Bev. J". Stone, of 
Hellidon, "Crown Prince is 1055 times descended 



144 



PKINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDIXG. 




IK-AND-IN BREEDING. 



145 




146 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

from Favorite, and Eed Rose by Harbinger, 13M 
times. So the produce of the two are descended from 
him 2399 times." ' 

Lord of the Yallej and his sisters are three six- 
teenths of the blood of Pilot, although he had not 
been used for five generations. 

They are also five-sixteenths of the blood of Buck- 
ingham. 

Lord of the Isles (18267) is an example of still 
closer breeding ; he was got by Sir Samuel out of Red 
Rose, by Harbinger. Sir Samuel was got by Crown 
Prince out of Charity, the dam of Crown Prince. Ac- 
cording to the same authority, the out-crosses made use 
of by Mr. Booth had a strong infusion of the blood 
of Favorite, Mussulman having sixty-four crosses, 
Lord Lieutenant one hundred and six crosses, and 
Matchem fifty-two crosses of this favorite progenitor 
of the improved Short-Horns. 

Diagram 7 shows the extent to which in-and-in 
breeding has been practised with the Heref ords. 

Mr. Price, the celebrated breeder of Heref ords, 
says : " I bought from Mr. Tompkins a considerable 
number of his cows and heifers, and two more bulls. 
I have kept the blood of these cattle unadulterated 
for forty years, and Mr. Tompkins assured me that he 
had bred the whole of his stock from two heifers and 
a bull, selected by himseK early in life, without any 
cross of blood. 

" My herd of cattle has, therefore, been bred in- 
and-in, as it is termed, for upward of eighty years, 
and by far the greater part of it in a direct line, on 

'Carr's "History," p. 40. 



IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 



147 



rYonjig Matcliein (Cm). Set tOmh 



ftconard CRtC 



ii 

& 

■s 



Bar«uTratIi!iy(tS15). J (YounsKcd RoTcr(«l)T). SuMinti 

UloMomM.j ainjeyiirt). feWoif, 

Ul<i»K)m. \ / Pilot (400), 



toni I.tcnlnianUican. 



}Uckliii;h3iii (nil}. StiUlotr. 

f Tonrjf 1 
Al.:'>;inJcr j^ , frilot(<»^ 



aiplierry (iSTSJ. £« Mm*. 
. fMa(clicm(42Sn, 



pflotpMJ. 



Ci-ualiuo. 



I mot (158}, 

tAnaODo. i 



\CaniaiIou. i 



AlbioH a^ 
f TonDU Albton 03). 



fErancaco (2035), 
fTonnj AUtlofi ps). 



rTcui)sAllIail(I3), 



ysuij. 



(Yonos Albion (Itl, 
rYouira iJbroD do 
Datliui, \ 



- -t { I 

I JPIloU««>. 



rfouDj 

f 

1 



Filol «»«}, 
Alblou ns). 



'Yooag Albion (IS), 






rpuoiidO, 

a, fToiirjAIbioutisk 



fTomwArfi- 



rpiionoiii 

rfiVJUcianacrCSJI). 
rUot (4<S|. 



JFUo^pS^ 



X4:8 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

botli sides, from one cow now in caK for the twentieth 
time. I have bred three calves from her, by two of 
her sons, one of which is now the largest cow I have, 
possessing also the best form and constitution; the 
other two were bulls, and proved of great value, thus 
showing indisputably that it is not requisite to mix 
the blood of the different kinds of the same race of 
animals, in order to keep them from degenerating." ^ 

The following pedigree of Mr. Fowler's celebrated 
bull Shakespeare, which includes that of Mr. Bake- 
well's noted bulls Twopenny and D, will show the 
extent to which in-and-in breeding was practised by 
those who were most successful in improving the 
Long-Horn breed : 

{Westmoreland Bull 
,..^...,. Old Comely 

y A Canley Cow 

/( Westmoreland Bull 
Twopenny ■{ 
( Old Comely 



Shakespeare ' 



Dam of D 



t Old Comely 

( Westmoreland Bull 
f Twopenny < 

Daughter of Twopenny-) < ^^^ ^^^^'^'^ 

[a Canley Cow 

Mr. Quartly, the great improver of the Devons, 
bred his animals very closely. 

The name of his bull. Prince of Wales (105), a 
celebrated prize-winner, is repeatedly found in the 
pedigrees of the best-bred Devons of the present day. 
His pedigree, which is as follows, shows that haK 

^ Farmer's Magazine^ 1841, vol. xiv., p. 50. 

2 Marshall's " Midland Counties," vol. i., pp. 820-322 ; Youatt on 
* Cattle," pp. 192, 193 ; Low's " Domestic Animals," p. 3'75. 



IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 149 

brother and sister were bred together twice in succes- 
sion: 

I Sillifant (120) 
f Hundred Guinea (56) ■{ 

i Ourley (92) 
'Prince Albert (102) J. 

' Sillifant (120) 



Quartly's Prince of 
Wales (105) 



I . (Sillif 

[Splendid (415) ] 

(Dain 



^Duchess (146) 

(Lilly 



Dainty 
Hundred Guinea (56) 



The high-bred cow, Eveleen 5th (4:66), belonging 
to the Michigan State Agricnltnral College, is a reg- 
ular breeder, a good milker, and remarkable for her 
feeding qualities and sound constitution. 

Her dam traces to Forester thirty times, to Sillifant 
ten times, to Hundred Guinea seven times, and to Quart- 
ly's Prince of Wales three times, in eight generations. 

Her sire, within the same limits, traces to Forester 
twenty-one times, to Sillifant twenty times, to Hun- 
dred Guinea thirteen times, and to Quartly's Prince 
of Wales ^VG times. 

In-and-in breeding has not been practised to the 
same extent with horses as with other farm -stock, 
yet many of the most noted horses on record have 
been bred from close relationships. 

Stonehenge says : " When any new breed of ani- 
mals is first introduced into this country, in-and-in 
breeding can scarcely be avoided ; and hence, when 
first the value of the Arab wa;s generally recognized, 
the breeder of the race-horse of those days could not 
well avoid having recourse to the plan. Thus we 
find, in the early pages of the stud-book, constant in- 
stances of very close breeding, often carried to such 
an extent as to become incestuous." And he adds, 



150 PRINCIPLES OP STOCS-BREEDING. 

" The evidence of success in resorting to tlie practice 
of in-breeding is too strong to be gainsaid." ^ 

The pedigree of Goldsmith's Maid, the " queen of 
the American turf," is given in Diagram 5, as an illus- 
tration of a well-bred trotter, as it includes several 
other noted pedigrees. 

Sheep-breeders have quite generally practised in- 
and-in breeding with the best results. 

The merino sheep, hired by the late Edwin Ham- 
mond, present a remarkable example of close breed- 
ing. "They were bred in-and-in by Colonel Hum- 
phreys up to the period of Mr. Atwood's purchase ; 
Mr. Atwood bred his entire flock from one ewe, and 
never used any but pure Humphreys rams ; Mr. Ham- 
mond has preserved the same blood entirely intact, 
and thus, after being drawn beyond all doubt from an 
unmixed Spanish Cabana, they have been bred in-and- 
in, in the United States, for upward of sixty years." ' 

The pedigree of the ram Gold Drop, for which 
Mr. Hammond refused twenty-five thousand dollars, 
is given in Diagram 6, in convenient form for study. 
Dividing the ^'hlood^'' of Gold Drop into 512 parts, it 
would be made up as follows : 





Parts. 


Of Old Black. 


196 


" first choice of old ewes 


. 151 


" " " " " ewe-lambs . 


109 


" dam of light-colored ewe 


28 


" Old Matchless . 


28 



Total . . . . . .512 

* Stonebenge on the "Horse," pp. 140, 141. See also "British 
Rural Sports," pp. 422-425, 286. 

2 Randall's "Practical Shepherd," p. 120. 



IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 



151 




162 



PEIXCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 




IN-AND-IN BREEDING. I53 

Old Greasy also represents 188 parts of blood 
in 512, and Wooster represents 138 parts in 512. 
Sweepstakes is ^ of tlie " blood " of Old Greasy, 
and if of the " blood " of Wooster. 

It will be seen that ten lines of descent may be 
traced from Old Greasy to Gold Drop, and fourteen 
lines of descent may be traced from Wooster to Gold 
Drop. 

The Rich, family of merino sbeep furnish, another 
example of successful close breeding. 

Mr. Randall says they "were first crossed in 
1842. They were then preeminently hardy. ^N^o one 
claims that they have gained either in hardiness or 
size by the cross ; yet for thirty years preceding that 
period they had been bred strictly in-and-in, to say 
nothing of their previous in-and-in breeding in 
Spain." ' 

" The Messrs. Brown during fifty years have 
never infused fresh blood into their excellent flock 
of Leicesters. 

" Since 1810 Mr. Barford has acted on the same 
principle with the Foscote flock. 

" He asserts that half a century of experience has 
convinced him that when two nearly-related animals 
are quite sound in constitution, in-and-in breeding 
does not induce degeneracy, but he adds that he 
' does not pride himseK on breeding from the nearest 
affinities.' " ' 

From the examples that have thus far been pre- 



^ Randall's "Practical Shepherd," p. 119. 

^ Darwin's "Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. ii., p. 



149. 



154 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

sented, it appears tliat in-and-in breeding lias been 
quite generally practised by those who have been the 
most successful in improving the different breeds, and 
it is probable, to say the least, that they have all made 
use of it with a common purpose. 

If those having the greatest reputation in 'the art 
had resorted to the practice of in-and-in breeding, on 
account of the direct influence it was in itself sup- 
posed to exert in the improvement of animals, they 
would undoubtedly have made use of it to a greater 
extent than they have done. 

From a careful examination of the pedigrees we 
have quoted, or any others that may be found in the 
herd-books and breeding-registers, representing the 
practice of breeders of acknowledged reputation, it 
will be found that in-and-in breeding has only been 
resorted to in the case of some favorite animal or ani- 
mals that were superior in certain respects to the 
average members of the herd or family which they 
represent, and the object has evidently been to se- 
cure, in their offspring, a predominance of their most 
highly- valued characters. 

From the complex relations of the multitude of 
hereditary characters in animals, which have been 
derived, as we have seen, from all of their ancestors, 
the modifying influences of food and habit cannot 
affect all animals in precisely the same degree or 
manner, and they cannot, therefore, be expected to 
produce the same modifications in the characters of 
a large number of animals at the same time. The 
breeder who makes an intelligent use of these modi- 
fying agencies, in the improvement of his stock, will 



IN-AND-IN BREEDINa 155 

rarely find more than one or two animals presenting 
variations that approximate closely to tlie ideal stand- 
ard of excellence he has adopted ; and, moreover, it 
must be admitted that the same desired form of vari- 
ation will be more likely to be obtained in those ani- 
mals that have the closest resemblance in their hered- 
itary tendencies and constitution. The truth of this 
proposition is amply proved by experience, as we find 
that the desirable variations that have laid the foun- 
dation for the improvement of breeds, have, as a rule, 
occurred in a few favored animals, belonging to the 
same family, and closely related in blood. 

Distinct breeds of animals have originated, as we 
have seen, through the influence of the conditions to 
which they were subjected in particular localities, in 
connection with a continued selection of those that in 
their form and qualities resemble each other, while 
those presenting diverging characters were rejected. 

In the improved breeds we have ingrafted upon 
the original type the highly-artificial characters that 
render the animal valuable for a special purpose, and 
these, from their very nature, are more difficult to 
retain than the less divergent characters of the origi- 
nal breed. 

These artificial characters can only be secured, in 
their greatest perfection, by persistent effort in the 
systematic accumulation of slight variations in the 
desired direction, and they can only be made the 
dominant characters of a family or breed by breeding 
exclusively from those animals in which they are the 
most conspicuous. 

If, as may reasonably be expected, these characters 



156 PKINCIPLES OP STOCK-BREEDING. 

make their appearance in a single family, or in a few 
individuals that are closely related, in-and-in breeding 
must necessarily be resorted to to secure their perpe- 
tuity. From these considerations it must be obvious 
that, in the improvement of a breed, in-and-in breed- 
ing tends to produce uniformity in the characteristics 
of a family by fixing desirable variations and making 
them dominant. 

From the uniformity thus obtained in the heredi- 
tary tendencies of the organization — the dominant 
characters of all the immediate ancestors being the 
same — the power of hereditary transmission is like- 
wise increased, as observed in what is now called pre- 
potency. If the hereditary transmission of desirable 
variations were not intensified by the process of in- 
breeding, or otherwise, they would unavoidably be- 
come latent by the preponderance of the more stable 
characters of the original type.^ 

^ The diflSculty of fixing a particular variation that presents a 
marked divergence from the normal condition of an animal, may be 
illustrated as follows : If we suppose the hereditary tendencies of the 
animal to be represented by one hundred and the desired variation by 
one, the chances of its being perpetuated by the animal when bred 
with another, that had not an equal susceptibility to variation in the 
same direction, would be only one in one hundred under the most 
favorable conditions ; but when there is a tendency to the dominance 
of other characters, the chances of its repetition will be less. Or, if 
among one thousand animals of a given breed there are but two that 
present a slight variation of a particular character, the chances of its 
being preserved, if the animals in which it occurs are not bred to- 
gether, would evidently be but two in one thousand, even in case the 
variation was not more difficult to preserve than the ordinary char- 
acters, while in the case of a variation of a highly-artificial character 
that would be likely to be obscured by more stable characters, the 
chances of its preservation would be materially diminished. 



IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 15Y 

Sucli characters, if not inbred, might be inherited, 
and make their appearance at intervals, as in the case 
of what are called accidental characters, which are 
not likely to be transmitted in a dominant form, but 
they would not become family characteristics. 

In the breeding of animals, the parent that ap- 
parently exercises the greatest influence upon the 
dominant characters of the offspring is said to be 
prepotent. 

When certain desirable characters have been de- 
veloped, in a few individuals, they can only be in- 
grafted upon the entire flock, or herd, by making 
them the dominant characters of the males that are 
to be used, and securing in them prepotency in their 
transmission. 

As the male practically represents one-haK of the 
breeding flock or herd, prepotency in the transmission 
of his better qualities is one of the most valuable char- 
acteristics he can possess. .^ 

In the cases of marC^prepotency, in which the 
ancestral history of the animals can be traced, in-and- 
in breeding has been so generally practised that we 
cannot avoid the conclusion that the one is dependent 
upon the other. 

If the male is more highly-bred than the females 
with which he is coupled, a greater uniformity in the 
offspring will be obtained through the predominance 
of his characteristics. 

The great demand for high-bred males, by the best 
breeders of all classes of stock, is the cause of the pre- 
vailing high prices of animals belonging to the most 
fashionable families. 



158 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

The importance of securing prepotency in the male 
parent has apparently been recognized by all the great 
breeders, as we find, as a rule, that their breeding-males 
have been selected from sub-families that are more 
highly inbred than the average of their stock. In 
many cases the practice of in-and-in breeding has been 
limited to certain families that were set apart for 
breeding-sires, and this on many accounts would un- 
doubtedly be the best method. 

Mr. Hammond's " Queen " family, from which he 
selected his rams, were bred in-and-in to a greater ex- 
tent than the rest of his flock. Jonas Webb kept five 
separate flocks, the rams used by himself being drawn 
from his favorite family; the "Duchess" tribe was 
the source of the sires of Mr. Bates's herd, and Mr. 
Booth had his favorite families, from which the sires 
of his own herd are descended. 

The degree of high breeding required to secure 
prepotency in a given male will evidently depend upon 
the relative development and breeding of the females 
with which he is coupled ; the better the females, and 
the greater the uniformity in their characteristics, the 
more intense must be the power of transmission in the 
male to secure a predominance of his peculiarities in 
his offspring, and this intensity in the power of trans- 
mission can only be produced by still higher breeding. 

The supposed cases of spontaneous prepotency 
and accidental variation cannot reasonably be claimed 
to constitute exceptions to the generally acknowledged 
laws that determine variations and regulate their trans- 
mission, as they are readily explained when all of the 
facts relating to them can be ascertained. 



IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 159 

As an illustration of this class of cases, attention is 
called to tlie family history of Mr. Fowler's Long-Horn 
bnll Shakespeare, which is often quoted as an example 
of spontaneity. His pedigree, as given on page 148, 
shows him to have been deeply in-and-in bred from 
animals of acknowledged merit. Mr. Marshall says : 
" This bull is a striking specimen of what naturalists 
term acGidental varieties. 

" Though bred in the manner that has been men- 
tioned, he scarcely inherits a single point of the Long- 
Horned breed, his horns excepted." ^ 

Then follows a description of the animal that shows 
him to have been somewhat better, in general form, 
than the ordinary Long-Horns of his day.'' 

Mr. Marshall also says, Mr. Fowler's " cows have 
long been considered of the first quality — of the best 
Canley blood — and his bull Shakespeare, already men- 
tioned, has raised them to a degree of perfection, 
which, in the opinion of the first judges, the breed of 
cattle under notice never before attained." ' 

^ " Rural Economy of the Midland Counties," vol. i., p. 322. 

2 Loc. cit, p. 322. 

2 A careful comparison of Mr. Marshall's description of the bul 
Shakespeare with his "general description" of "the higher class of 
individuals " of the Long-Horn breed, in the herds of Messrs, Fowler, 
Bakewell, and Princep, will show that aside from a deeper chest, shorter 
legs, and a peculiarity in the setting on of the tail, Shakespeare did not 
differ essentially from the best type of the breed to which he belonged. 

In his " general description " of the breed, Mr. Marshall says, " The 
tail set on variously, even in individuals of the highest repute." So 
that the peculiarities in the tail of Shakespeare cannot be considered as 
exceptional in a breed in which variety in the character was the rule. 

Compare Marshall, loc. cit, pp. 323-326, with pp. 32*7-33 1 ; and 
Youatt on "Cattle," pp. 193-197. 



160 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDINO. 

The Canlej stock, which, was the foundation of 
Mr. Fowler's herd, as well as Mr. Bakewell's, was 
obtained of Mr. Webster, of Canlej, "the leading 
breeder of the midland counties." 

Of this stock Mr. Marshall says : " I have, indeed, 
heard it said, by a man who has himself been a breeder 
of some eminence, that Mr. Webster had the best 
stock, especially of heance (cattle), that ever were, or 
(he believed) ever will be bred in the kingdom ; " and 
he adds in a note, " Another eminent breeder, on whose 
judgment I can better rely, is of opinion that, in beauty 
or utility of form, they have received little, if any, 
improvement since Mr. Webster's day." ^ 

Old Comely (the dam of Twopenny) was killed 
at the age of twenty-six years, and " the fat on her 
sirloin was four inches in thickness." ^ 

The bull Twopenny was a celebrated animal, and 
the bull D, Mr. Marshall says, was " a fine animal, 
and a striking proof of the vulgar error that breeding 
in-and-in weakens the breed. ... At the age of twelve 
or thirteen years (he) is more active and higher-met- 
tled than bulls in general are at three or four years 
old." ' 

- From what is known of the ancestors of the bull 
Shakespeare, his superior qualities could not have 
been accidental ; and, as the progeny that he left 
were unmistakably Long-Horns of the most approved 
type, he must have transmitted the characters he in- 
herited from his ancestors. 

* Loc. cit.j p. 319. 

' Farmer^s Magazine^ vol. xvii., p. 84. 

3 Loc. cit, p. 321. 



IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 161 

If he presented anj characters that were not to be 
reconciled with the improved type of his breed — as 
in the fancied resemblance to " a Holdemess or Tees- 
water bull " — ^it would certainly be more reasonable 
to refer them to the atavic transmission of some re- 
mote cross than to accidental variation. 

In attempts to ingraft a new or modified char- 
acter upon those representing a family type, without 
destroying the specific characters of the family, close 
breeding within the limits of the family must be prac- 
tised to prevent too wide a divergence in the domi- 
nant characters. 

Diagram 6 may be studied with profit, as it shows 
the skilKul manner in which the blood of the light- 
colored ewe was infused into the flock of Mr. Ham- 
mond, to tone down the tendency to the production 
of excessive yolk without destroying the other desir- 
able qualities of the descendants of old Black, and the 
first choice of old ewes and first choice of ewe-lambs. 

From this general examination of the practice of 
in-and-in breeding by the most celebrated breeders, it 
appears that they have made use of it to secure uni- 
formity in their breeding-stock, to fix the slight vari- 
ations that they sought in the process of improvement 
and blend them with the best original characters, and 
to secure the important quality of prepotency in the 
males that they made use of to " improve " the aver- 
age characters of their stock. 

"We will now proceed to a consideration of the 
alleged influence of in-and-in breeding in producing 
delicacy of constitution, lack of fecundity, and a ten- 
dency to disease and abnormal peculiarities. It is, 



162 PRINCirLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

without question, too often tlie case, tliat high-bred 
animals have one or more of the defects in question, 
to an extent that seriously impair their value for any 
useful purpose ; and it is undoubtedly the interest of 
the breeder to ascertain the true causes of their prev- 
alence, and the best methods of counteracting them. 

If an imaginary cause is mistaken for the real 
one, the breeder may, by avoiding it, rest in fancied 
security, while the unsuspected agencies that he has 
overlooked may be acting with undiminished energy. 
"We have already observed that, in the highest devel- 
opment of special characters by artificial treatment, 
particularly in the meat-producing breeds, a delicacy 
of constitution is produced that renders the animal 
more susceptible to the influence of modifying agen- 
cies. 

When this impressibility of the organization is in 
excess and becomes a marked characteristic of a fam- 
ily, it will be fixed, and perhaps intensified, by in-and- 
in breeding ; or, in other words, if a delicacy of con- 
stitution is produced by the system of management to 
which animals are subjected, it will readily be made 
a prominent characteristic by in-and-in breeding. 

That the close breeding in this case is not the 
cause of the impaired condition of the organization, 
but rather the means of its being perpetuated, cannot 
be doubted. The following cases, in connection with 
a number of a similar character that have already 
been cited, will show that in-and-in breeding is not 
necessarily associated with a delicacy of constitution, 
and it does not, as a matter of course, produce it. 

In the first volume of the " Hereford Herd-Book " 



IN-AND-IN BUEEDING. 163 

is a portrait of the closely in-and-in bred bull Cotmore 
(3Y6) : " He was the winner of the first prize in bis 
class at the first meeting of the Kojal Agricultural 
Society of England, held at Oxford. He was also a 
winner of many local prizes, and was, perhaps, one of 
the finest bulls ever seen ; his colossal proportions were 
something very astounding, as may be inferred from 
the fact that the live weight was thirty-five cwt. 

" He was bred by Mr. Jeffries, of the Grove, near 
Leominster." 

The pedigree of Cotmore, given in Diagram 7, 
shows the closest in-and-in breeding. 

" Sovereign (404), when at the age Qi fifteen years, 
was his sire, but he was not of the same enormous 
size, although acknowledged to be one of the best 
stock-getters of his day. He was bred by Mr. Fewer, 
and very closely in-and-in bred." ^ 

The pedigree shows that the sire of Cotmore 
(Sovereign) was the produce of (Favorite and Count- 
ess) full brother and sister, their sire and dam (Young 
Wellington and Cherry) were haK brother and sister, 
and their grandams (Silky and Old Cherry) were 
haK-sisters. Lottery, the sire of Cotmore's dam, was 
not only closely bred, but we find him descended 
from the same animals as Sovereign. The pedigree 
of Cotmore's grandam is not given in the " Herd-Book." 

Mr. George Butts, of ManHus, jN'ew York, has re- 
cently furnished an instance of continued close breed- 
ing in his family of Short-Horns. He says : " I bred 
Apricot's Gloster 2500 upon the second generation 

1 " Hereford Breed of Cattle," by T. Duckham, p. 18, in vol. vi. of 
" Hereford Herd-Book." 



164 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDIXG. 



r^ 



( Silver (540) 

{■Wellin^on-K 
(507) ( Primrose 
(Waxy (403) 
Silky \ (Silver (540) 

SDk i 



Cherry 



^...I 



( Silver (540) 



Wellington 

(507) I Primroso 



[old Cherry-) 



Waxy (403) 



( Silver (540) 

(Wellington-< 
(507) ( Primrose 
( Waxy (403) 
Silky ■{ 

Silk 



Cherry.... 



i 



(Snver(540) 
fWellingtonK 

(507) ( Primrose 

(Waxy (403) 
Old Cherry -{ 



J Silver (540) 



O 



Waxy (403) 






Old 

Conqueror - 

(410) 



Chance 
(355) 



. Gentle , 



Youn» Wellington (505). See 
above. 

{Wellington (507). 
See above. 



. Fanny 



Old Sovereign (404). See above. 



I Silver (540) 



.Old Fanny 



r Wellington 

(507) ( Primrose 



Old Fan. 



■I 



Silver (540) 



. Eed Eoso . 



( Silver (540) 
Wellingtons 

(507) ( Primrose 

f Waxy (403) 



Eosebud , 



Pretty Maid 



{ Silver (540) 



Wellington 

(507) ( Primrose 

{ Silver (540) 
.Old Beauty -| 



DIAGRAM 7.— PEDIGREE OF HEREFORD BULL COTMORE. 



IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 165 

of heifers of his own get, thereby producing Treble 
Gloster Y331. I then bred him (Treble Gloster) 
back to his dam, Spring Beauty, and the result was a 
very fine heifer, Souvenir. I then bred Treble Glos- 
ter again to Souvenir, and the result was an extra fine 
heifer which is May Beauty ; and I wish here to say 
that the results of the above course of breeding have 
been so entirely satisfactory in the past, that I am 
now breeding Treble Gloster to all my females, re- 
gardless of his relationship to them, in the fullest 
confidence in this course of breeding." * 

It should be remarked that such practice is not to 
be recommended, except in cases where there is some 
special object to be accomplished, on account of the 
difficulty of finding animals free from defects. 

The success of Mr. Butts, thus far, shows that the 
stamina of animals is not necessarily impaired by the 
closest possible breeding. 

The wild cattle of Chillingham Park, in England, 
have, as is well known, been bred within the limits of 
the herd for many years, their origin and the time of 
their inclosure in this park being unknown. Lord 
Tankerville, in 1838, said, " In my father and grand- 
father's time, we know the same obscurity as to their 
origin prevailed." ^ 

Mr. Darwin states that " the late Lord Tankerville 
owned that they were bad breeders," ^ and he estimated 
the increase of the herd in 1861 at about one in ^ye, 

^ Country Gentleman^ 18'74, p. 409. 
^ Farmer'^s Magazine^ vol. xxxvi., p. 354. 

3 "Report of the British Association," 1838, quoted in "Animals 
and Plants under Domestication," vol. ii., p. 148. 



166 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

When I saw the herd, in 1874, it numbered about 
sixty, of all ages and sexes. Among them were sev- 
eral steers. 

The park-keeper informed me that they produced 
from ten to twelve calves annually, which agrees 
closely with Mr. Darwin's estimate. They are cer- 
tainly not very prolific, yet the number of calves is, 
perhaps, as great as could be expected under the con- 
ditions in which they are placed. 

They exhibited no indications of degeneracy or 
lack of constitutional vigor, and I was assured that 
they were both healthy and hardy. After several 
hundred years of close breeding they are apparently 
as robust as animals that have frequently received in- 
fusions of " new blood " by crossing. 

Mr. Ballance, who has bred Malay fowls for nearly 
thirty years, says : " During the whole of this period 
I have never allowed the introduction of any fresh 
blood by crossing with any other strain of Malays, 
but have kept entirely to my own ; and as I have suc- 
ceeded in winning more prizes with Malays than any 
other fancier of these much-abused but most valuable 
birds, in all parts of the kingdom, I think my experi- 
ence is not to be despised, as testifying to the fact 
that breeding in-and-in does not necessarily deteri- 
orate the birds who may be subjected to this opera- 
tion." ' 

" Colonel Jaques, of the Ten Hills Farm, near Bos- 
ton, imported a pair of Bremen geese in 1822. They 
were bred together till 1830, when the gander was 
accidentally killed. 

» Tegetmeier's "Poultry-Book," p. 19. 



IN-AND-IN BEEEDING. 1G7 

" Since tlien the goose bred witli her offspring, tiU 
she was killed by an attack of dogs in 1852. Great 
numbers were bred during this time, and of course 
there was much of the closest breeding, yet there was 
no deterioration, and in fact some of the later ones 
were larger and better than the first pair. The same 
gentleman also obtained a pair of wild-geese from 
Canada in 1818, which, with their progeny, were bred 
from, without change, until destroyed by dogs with 
the above-named in 1852. They continued perfect as 
at first." ' 

Mr. James Ruthven, formerly secretary of the 
l^orth British Columbarian Society, says : " There is 
one fact I became acquainted with three years since. 
A gentleman in Ireland got one pair of trumpeter 
pigeons, and put them into a large loft alone. He 
kept them there fifteen years^ breeding and produc- 
ing, without once adding fresh blood; only, when 
they got too numerous, killing off. The produce are 
as strong birds and as healthy as could be desired." "^ 

Mr. Dixon, of Canandaigua, ISTew York, says he has 
bred Dominique fowls for twelve years without hav- 
ing a " strange cock in the yard during that time ; " and 
his stock is strong and hardy, the hens laying as well 
as those of his neighboi^ who change their stock often. 
The cocks averaged about seven pounds and the hens 
about four pounds." ' 

The fecundity of animals, as has been shown in a 
preceding chapter, is determined by inheritance, and 

^ Goodale's " Principles of Breeding," pp. 99, 100. 

2 Wright's " Book of Poultry," p. 295. 

2 Country Gentleman^ February, 1868, p. 112. 



168 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BKEEDIXG. 

the action of the various modifying influences to whicli 
they are subjected. In the cases of impaired fecun- 
dity in animals that have been bred in-and-in, it will 
be necessary to ascertain the extent to which these 
obvious causes of a defective performance of the 
reproductive functions are operative, before we are 
justified in assuming the existence of some " occult " 
or mysterious influence arising from consanguinity. 

Mr. John Wright, who is often quoted as an oppo- 
nent of in-and-in breeding, has evidently overlooked 
the existence of the more obvious causes of sterility 
and barrenness, and assumed that they are produced 
only by close breeding.^ 

He apparently concludes that, when two facts are 
associated in a large number of cases, they must have 
the relation of cause and effect. The most striking 
case cited in support of his theory is as follows : 

*' In pigs, the writer's experience was considerable, 
in breeding from three or four sows at the same time, 
all descended from the same parents, boar and sow ; 
these were put to the same boar for seven descents or 
generations ; the result was, that in many instances 
they failed to hreed, in others they bred few that 
lived ; many of them were idiots — ^had not sense to 
suck ; and, when attempting to walk, they could not 
go straight. The last two sows of the breed were sent 
to other boars, 2JidL produced several litters of healthy 
pigs. In justice to the advocates of the in-and-in prin- 
ciple, it is but right to state that the best sow during 
the seven generations was one of the last descent. She 
was the only pig of that litter. She would not breed 

^ Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society^ vol. vii., pp. 204, 205. 



IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 169 

to her sire, but bred to a stranger in blood at the first 
trial. She possessed great substance and constitution 
and was a very superior animal." 

It would be difficult to find a better illustration of 
the physiological principles that have been already 
presented, and, as they furnish a satisfactory explana- 
tion of all the observed facts, we cannot with reason 
attribute them to the influence of other causes. An 
acquaintance of Mr. Wright's says of his pigs, " They 
are of excellent quality, readily feed, and soon attain 
maturity." ^ 

The fattening qualities of these pigs had been 
highly developed, and finally became a dominant char- 
acteristic, while the procreative powers were made 
latent. 

In successfully gaining a single character, Mr. 
"Wright had neglected another essential quality that 
was obscured for the time being. The high develop- 
ment of the fatty diathesis would be sufficient to ac- 
count for the lack of fecundity observed, even if there 
was not on the start an hereditary tendency in the 
same direction. 

That the procreative powers were not destroyed, 
but remained latent, is shown by the fact that the sows 
bred freely with boars of another family. 

With boars of their own blood they could not be 
expected to breed, as the powers of fecundity, in such 
case, would be latent in both male and female, but, 
when they were bred with animals in which the re- 
productive function was not latent, the defect was 
corrected. 

' Farmer^s Magazine^ vol. xxxvi., p. 388. 



170 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

It has been supposed by some writers that, in 
cases like the preceding, where high-bred animals do 
not breed readily among themselves, a condition ex- 
ists analogous to that observed in '^ self -impotent " 
plants and other hermaphrodite organizations that are 
incapable of self-fertilization/ The cases, however, in 
which high-bred animals are perfectly prolific seem to 
indicate that in-and-in breeding and fecundity are not 
incompatible, and that the loss of fertility, when it 
occurs in high-bred animals, is better accounted for 
on the principle that, in the correlation of functions, 
if one is greatly in excess, another may be obscured. 

As the impaired function of reproduction may fre- 
quently be restored by a suitable selection of animals 
within the limits of a high-bred family, it would like- 
wise appear that the functional defect of the organiza- 
tion is not a specific one resulting from an approxi- 
mate identity in blood. 

From the well-known fact that high-bred animals, 
when kept under different conditions are more prohfic 
than those that are treated in the same manner,'' it 
must be apparent that the suspension of the reproduc- 
tive functions, in the cases under consideration, is pro- 
duced by the modifying agencies to which the animals 
are subjected, and not by close breeding. 

The infertility of some of the Booth family of 
Short-Horns ' has been attributed to the forcing sys- 

^ Darwin's " Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. ii., p. 
177. 

2 Sebright's " Art of improving the Breeds," etc., p. 16 ; " American 
Cattle," by Allen, p. 206 ; Sinclair's " Code of Agriculture," p. 95. 

3 Carr's "History," p. 90. 



IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 171 

tern practised in " training " for exhibition, rather than 
in-and-in breeding, and this is undoubtedly a potent 
cause of sterility and barrenness. 

In the pedigrees that we have selected to illustrate 
the practice of different breeders, many instances may 
be found of high-bred animals that are good breeders. 
From the extent to which in-and-in breeding was car- 
ried in the case of Mr. Eobert Ceiling's cow Clarissa, 
the pedigree in Diagram 8 is of particular interest. 
Clarissa was calved in 1814, and produced calves in 
1817, 1818, and 1819, as shown by the "Herd-Book." 
Her daughter Restless, got by Lancaster (360), who 
was more than a haK-brother to Clarissa, was breeding 
at six and seven years of age. Lancaster, the highest- 
priced animal at E. Ceiling's sale in 1818 (six hundred 
and twenty-one guineas), proved a valuable sire, and 
his name is to be found in many of the best pedigrees 
of the present day. 

The Short-Horn bull Grazier (1085) was closely 
inbred (see Diagram 9), and a good breeder. Grazier 
was bred by Mr. Wiley, of Brandsby, near York. 
He was used in the herds of the Earl of Carlisle, Lord 
Feversham, Sir John Johnstone, Sir I. Ramsdon, Mr. 
William Smith, and Mr. Slater. He died at Byram 
when fourteen years of age. Twenty-seven sixty- 
fourths of his blood was that of Favorite, who ap- 
pears for the first time in the pedigree at the third 
generation back. 

At the Milcote sale in England, March 28, 1860, 
thirty-one descendants of the cow " Charmer," includ- 
ing "three old cows" and several calves, sold for 
£2,139 185., an average of over £69 each. 



172 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 




IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 173 



r Favorite (252) 
■ Phenomenon 



r^ 



(491) 



1 J Ben (70) 



( Favorite (252) 
S I. Eed Eose . . . ■< ( Punch (581) 



f Adonis (6)...- 



( Favorite (252) 

'I — 1 



f Comet (156) . . •< ( Favorite (252) 



Beauty , 



\ Favorite (252) 
Marske (417) < 

Favorite 
Miss ( Washington ■{ (252) 

^Washingtoi 



{Washington ■< 
(674) ( 



( Favorite (252) 
f Phenomenon •< (Ben (70) 



I PJienomenonK ( 

J (491) i j 

1 ( Favorite (252) 

1 Eed Eose. <.•< ( Puncli 

I j (531) j: 

j Punch (531) I 



Midas 
(435) I ( Favorite (252) 

"" ' "" I Punch 

Foljambe 
(263) 
Punch (531) 



DIAGEAM 9. — PEDIGEEE OF SHOET-HOBN BULL GBAZIEB. 

. Charmer " was a most extraordinary milker," and 
the herd descended from her were said to be " capital 
milkers, and yery prolific, not having been pampered. 
... Of the eight bulls named in the fourth generation 
from which she is descended, one was ' Favorite.' She 
is one-sixteenth Favorite, therefore, on that account. 
But the cow to which he was then put was also de- 
scended from ^ Favorite,' and so are each of the other 
seven bulls and seven cows which stand on the same 
level of descent with the great-great-grandam of 
'Charmer.' And, in fact, it will be found, on ex- 
amination, that in so far as ' Charmer's ' pedigree is 
known, which it is in some instances to the sixteenth 



174 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

generation, she is not one-sixteenth only, but nearly 
nine-sixteenths of pure ' Favorite ' blood. This arises 
from ' Favorite ' having been used repeatedly on cows 
descended from himseK. ... In the case of ' Charmer,' 
we find of her great-grandams one was the produce 
of * Favorite.' !None of her progenitors in the im- 
mediately preceding generation were the produce of 
that bull, but of those in the next and successive gen- 
eration preceding, there were, so far as known, 2, 8, 
25, 58, 101, and 99, respectively got by him. . . . 

" In the pedigree of ' Charmer ' we repeatedly 
meet with ' Comet ; ' ' Comet ' was by ' Favorite,' and 
his dam, * Young Phoenix,' was also by 'Favorite,' 
with * George ; ' ' George ' was by ' Favorite,' and his 
dam, ' Lady Grace,' was also by ' Favorite,' with 
* Chilton ; ' ' Chilton ' was by ' Favorite,' and his dam 
also was by ' Favorite,' with ' Minor ; ' ' Minor ' was 
by 'Favorite,' and his dam also was by 'Favorite,' 
with ' Peeress ; ' she was by ' Favorite,' and her dam 
also was by ' Favorite,' with ' Bright Eyes ; ' she was 
by ' Favorite,' and her dam also by ' Favorite,' with 
' Strawberry ; ' she was by ' Favorite,' and her dam 
by ' Favorite ; ' ' Dandy ' and ' Moss Kose ' among the 
cows, and ' North Star ' among the bulls, are also of 
similar descent." * 

An examination of the pedigree will show that 
Charmer traces four hundred and eight lines of de- 
scent to Favorite, and that bulls descended from haK 
brother and sister were used eighteen times, as fol- 
lows : Midas ^ye, Barmpton six. Young Lancaster 

^ Gardener's Chronicle and Agrimltural Gazette, 1860, pp. 270, 271, 
279, 294. See also Goodale's "Principles of Breeding," p. 97. 



IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 1Y5 

three, Sultan two, and Pope and Northampton once 
each. Twenty-four times animals appear whose dam 
was daughter of their sire. Seventeen of the animals 
sold were got by the bull " Mameluke," who was " also 
full of ' Favorite ' blood." 

In this family we find a good illustration of the 
principle to which we have already called attention — 
that " good- milking " qualities and " good-breeding " 
qualities are usually associated — and this may safely 
be attributed to the animals "not, having been pam- 
pered," and the inheritance of ancestral characters. 

"M. Beaudowin gives the particulars of a flock 
of merinos, bred in-and-in for twenty-two years with- 
out a single cross, and with perfectly successful results, 
there being no sign of decreased fertility, and the 
breed in other respects having been improved." ^ 

It has been claimed that the statistics obtained in 
asylums for the insane, the idiotic, and the deaf, dumb, 
and blind, show that consanguineous marriages are a 
fruitful source of this class of defects. As statistics 
of this kind are not readily accessible to the general 
reader, the following synopsis of the reports relating 
to this subject wiU be of interest in this connection. 

In the examination of this class of facts, however, 
it must be remembered that such effects, when proved 
to exist, would be more marked in the human family, 
where there is a high development of the intellectual 
faculties, than among the lower animals that possess 
an organization that is more symmetrically balanced. 

"Dr. Chazarain, a young physician of Bordeaux, 

' Comptes-Eendus, Angnst 6, 1862; according to "Transactions of 
New York State Medical Society," 1869, p. 111. 



176 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

has written a very able thesis on the same subject, 
which contains numerous observations on the influ- 
ence of consanguinity on deaf-dumbness. It appears 
that in the Deaf and Dumb Institution at Bordeaux, 
of thirty-nine boys deaf and dumb, six were the off- 
spring of such marriages ; and of these six, one boy 
had two brothers deaf and dumb, and one boy had 
three brothers deaf and dumb, making a total of 
eleven. 

"Of twenty-seven girls, in the same institution, 
nine were the issue of such marriages ; and of this 
number, six had between them seven brothers and 
sisters similarly affected, making a total of sixteen; 
and very lately (1860), M. Devay, Professor of Clini- 
cal Medicine at Lyons, has brought the same subject 
before the notice of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, 
in that city ; for, to so great an extent has the evil 
prevailed, that in one of the departments of France 
(Arieges), the clergy have endeavored to check the 
frequency of such marriages, and have appealed to 
the authorities at Montpellier to aid them in so do- 
ing." ' 

" In a very able paper ' On Marriages of Consan- 
guinity and Deaf-Dumbness,' which is generally sup- 
posed to be one of the most constant defects resulting 
from such marriages, M. Boudin informs us that ^ deaf- 
mutes are the issue of consanguineous marriages in the 
proportion of twenty-eight per cent, at the Paris Im- 
perial Institution, twenty-five per cent, at Lyons, and 
thirty per cent, at Bordeaux ; ' and that as regards the 

* Sedgwick, in the British and Foreign Medico- Chirurgical Review^ 
July, 1861, p. 143. 



IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 177 

Jews in Berlin, 27 in 10,000 are deaf-mutes, while tlie 
proportion is only 6 in 10,000 among the Christian 
population in that city; and apparently, therefore, 
with great justice, he concludes that ' the hypothesis 
of the pretended harmlessness of consanguineous mar- 
riages is contradicted by the most evident and well- 
authenticated facts.' " ^ 

Statistics have been collected, apparently showing 
that the cousins of persons who are deaf and dumb 
are particularly subject to the same defect, and it has 
been inferred that they furnish a satisfactory explana- 
tion of the preceding statements. As we wish to pre- 
sent as strong a case as possible in favor of the theory 
that consanguineous marriages are hkely to result in 
defects in the offspring, the following statistics are 
added : 

From "Wilde's " Report on the Deaf and Dumb of 
Ireland" (as quoted by Sedgwick), it appears that 
" in cases of single congenital mutism, v/here the re- 
lations were also deaf and dumb, there were by the 
father's side .... in one instance six cousins af- 
fected ; in three cases there were four cousins, and in 
nine cases two cousins all deaf-mutes. Where two of 
the family were affected with congenital deaf -dumb- 
ness, in two instances four cousins were in a similar 
condition ; in two cases three cousins were deaf and 
dumb, and in four instances two cousins were thus 
affected. 

"Where three cases of congenital deaf -dumbness 
occurred in the same family .... in five cases, two 
cousins were in a similar condition. When the rela- 

^ British and Foreign Medico- Chirurgical Revieio^ July, 1863, p. 1Y9. 



178 PKINCIPLES OF STOCK-BHEEDING. 

tionsliip came bj the motlier's side, there were in 
cases of congenital mutism eight cases where tliree 
cousins were deaf and dumb, and fourteen instances 
where two cousins were thus affected. In the case 
of two mutes in the same family, we find that .... 
in one case three cousins, and in four cases two 
cousins, labored under the like defect .... and 
.... where three mutes occurred in the same fami- 
ly ... . two cases presented of two cousins also deaf 
and dumb." 

These facts, upon their face, appear to be conclu- 
sive as to the alleged influence of consanguineous 
marriages in producing the defects in question. In 
collecting them, however, a number of important 
points have been neglected, which seriously detract 
from the force they would otherwise be entitled to. 
Endemic conditions, we have already observed, have 
a decided influence in producing similar malforma- 
tions, and an inherited tendency of the parents to a 
diseased condition of the system of another form 
would likewise aid in their production. 

In this connection it will be well to examine the 
facts in relation to the heredity of deaf -mutism. Dr. 
Joseph Adams,^ in noticing the statistics furnished 
by the Deaf and Dumb Institution of London, says : 
" Of one hundred and forty-eight scholars upon the 
foundation of this institution, one is of a family 
where there are "Rye deaf and dumb (himself in- 
cluded); one where there are four; eleven where 
there are three ; and nineteen where there are two. 

" Of the scholars, fifty-seven are girls, and the rest 
* " Hereditary Diseases," p. 66. 



IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 1Y9 

boys ; no7ie of them of deaf and durrib parents. The 
gentleman who superintends the manufactories, and 
who, consequently, has the best opportunity of tracing 
the subsequent history of his scholars, informs me 
that some of them are married and have children, all 
of whom are perfect in their organs of hearing. One 
instance has occurred, in which both parents were 
born deaf, yet their children hear." 

" At the school for the deaf and dumb in Man- 
chester (England), in 183T, ^ there were forty-eight 
children taken from seventeen families .... an 
average of nearly three such cases in each family. 
Out of these instances there appears but one in which 
the defect was known to exist in either parent." 

The following cases are likewise quoted from Mr. 
Sedgwick's valuable article on " Hereditary Diseases : " 
" Mr. Wilde, whose observations included the whole 
of the deaf and dumb population of Ireland, states, 
that ' ninety - eight deaf and dumb persons — sixty 
males, and thirty-eight females — were married. In 
eighty-six instances — fifty-four males, and thirty-two 
females — only one parent was deaf and dumb : from 
the marriage of these, two hundred and three children 
resulted, among whom there was but one instance of 
mutism, a male, in the county of Limerick. Six in- 
stances have been recorded of the intermarriage of 
deaf and dumb persons : their offspring amounted to 
thirteen, of whom only one, a female, in the city of 
Dubhn, was deaf and dumb.' " 

"Lastly, in the thirty-fifth annual report of the 

^ "Notes and Reflections," by Sir Henry Holland, as quoted by 
Sedgwick, loc. cit, p. 142. 



180 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

asylum in Hartford (United States), we find that one 
hundred and three of the deaf and dumb had been, 
or are now, married. In forty-one of these marriages, 
both parties were deaf and dumb ; in twenty-three, 
one could speak or hear. Of these one hundred and 
three, thirty-one had not become parents, but the re- 
maining seventy-two were parents of one hundred and 
two children, of whom ninety-eight could hear and 
speak, and four only were deaf and dumb. One of 
the four was the only child of his parents, both of 
whom were congenitally deaf. Besides the parents, 
the paternal grandfather, a sister of the father, and 
two sons of this sister, were deaf and dumb. In the 
other family, that of three children, the father lost 
his hearing by disease at two years of age, and had 
no known relative deaf and dumb. The mother was 
born deaf, and had a deaf and dumb brother." ^ 

In commenting upon the fallacy of inferences 
drawn from the preceding statistics, and particularly 
on those presented by M. Boudin in his paper on 
consanguineous marriages above quoted, Mr. Sedg- 
wick says : " In the first place, with regard to the sup- 
posed frequency of consanguineous marriages among 
the Jews, M. Isidor, the Grand Eabbi of Paris, states 
that such marriages are far less frequent than is gen- 
erally believed ; and, moreover, if the inference drawn 
from the great prevalence of deaf-mutism among the 
Jews of Berlin were correct, the statistics would be 
found to coincide with those of deaf -mutism among the 
Jews elsewhere, but such is not the case, for, although 

^ British and Foreign Medico- Cidrurglcal Revieio^ July, 1861, p. 
143. 



IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 181 

the number of Jews in Paris is estimated at twenty 
^YG thousand, only four of them are deaf-mutes. 
Again, with respect to the greater frequency of deaf- 
mutism in other races among the offspring of those 
who are allied, compared with those who are aliens 
by blood, although the facts adduced by M. Boudin 
and other writers are undoubtedly correct, yet the in- 
ference that has been drawn from them is in like man- 
ner probably erroneous, for all, or nearly all, the illus- 
trations of deaf -mutism in these cases of consanguinity, 
have occurred in circumscribed localities, where deaf- 
mutism, independent of consanguinity, is more com- 
mon than elsewhere. Mr. "W. R. Scott, of the Deaf 
and Dumb Institution at Exeter, has lately called at- 
tention to the fact that deaf-mutism occurs in much 
larger proportion in secluded and rural populations 
than in urban and manufacturing districts; in the 
union of Crediton, in Devonshire, one in 1,143 of the 
population is a deaf-mute, and in the Scilly Islands 
this is still more remarkably shown by the fact that 
there are no less than six deaf-mutes in a population 
of 2,677, or one in 446. But perhaps the strongest 
argument against the unqualified admission in these 
cases of consanguinity as the fo7is et origo mali, is 
the fact that deaf-mutism cannot as a rule be directly 
transmitted to the offspring even in those cases in 
which both the parents are deaf-mutes ; for it is chiefly 
by means of breeding-in that peculiarities of structure 
among the lower animals are perpetuated ; and their 
hereditary transmission is effected with so much cer- 
tainty and facility that it would be diflicult, in the 
present day, to say what amount of abnormal develop- 



182 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

ment may not by this system be established as a per- 
manent variety. 

" It is therefore evident that consanguinity alone 
cannot be accepted as the cause of deaf-mutism, nor 
consequently as the sole cause of any other diseases or 
defects which have from time to time been ascribed to 
it." ' 

In 1858, Dr. Bemis, of Kentucky, made a report " 
to the American Medical Association on " Marriages 
of Consanguinity," in which he gives an imperfect 
history of eight hundred and seventy-three instances 
of such marriages. 

The conclusions of the author are briefly stated in 
the paper as follows : " I feel satisfied, however, that 
my researches give me authority to assume that over 
ten per cent, of the deaf and dumb, and over five per 
cent, of the blind, and near fifteen per cent, of the 
idiotic in our State institutions for subjects of those 
defects, and throughout the country at large, are the 
offspring of kindred parents, or of parents themselves 
the descendants of blood intermarriage." 

It will be observed that Dr. Bemis does not assume 
that the relationship of the parents is the cause of the 
defects of their children, and there is nothing in the 
report to warrant such a conclusion. The facts pre- 
sented in the report are of particular interest, as they 
furnish a good illustration of the difficulty of obtain- 
ing exact statistical information on subjects of this 
kind. One source of fallacy, arising from the manner 

^ British and Foreign Medico- CJiirurgical Review^ July, 1863, pp. 
179, 180. 

' " Transactions of the American Medical Association," vol. ii., p. 319. 



IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 183 

in which the statistics were coUectedj is noticed by Dr. 
Bemis, who says : " But while indorsing the truthful- 
ness of these statistics, it is my duty to state that those 
which relate to marriages of consanguinity should prob- 
ably not be received as a completely true representa- 
tion of the results of such marriages ; some modifica- 
tion of the mean of results might occur if the statis- 
tics of all instances of in-and-in marrying, in the Union, 
for example, could be comprised in one report. It is 
natural for contributors to overlook many of the more 
fortunate results of family intermarriage, and furnish 
those followed by defective offspring or sterility. The 
mere existence of either of these conditions would 
prompt inquiry, while the favorable cases might pass 
unnoticed." 

It is well known that the defects in question may 
be produced by a variety of causes, but their presence 
or absence in the cases reported is not noticed. 

"When a predisposition to these or similar defects 
exists in a family, the intermarriage of its members 
would, without doubt, result in their repetition in the 
offspring by direct transmission, and the influence of 
the relationship of the parents could not, as a matter 
of course, be determined. 

In nearly all the cases collected by Dr. Bemis, the 
history of the ancestors of the parents is not given, 
and there is therefore nothing to show that the defec- 
tive children in the cases reported have not been af- 
flicted by a direct inheritance of their deformity. In 
one hundred and eighty-one of the cases, one or both 
parents are reported as delicate in constitution, addict- 
ed to bad habits, or suffering from disease, and in over 



184 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

one hundred cases no report is given as to the health 
or habits of the parents. 

The mere fact that the parents of these defective 
children were related, throws no light npon the cause 
of their infirmities, which can only be determined bj 
a knowledge of details that the report does not fur- 
nish. 

Dr. Robert ISTewman, of 'New York, as chairman 
of a committee appointed for that purpose, made a 
" Report on the Result of Consanguineous Marriages" 
to the New York State Medical Society, from which 
we make the following extracts, showing the opinions 
of able men who have given the subject a careful ex- 
amination, and a summary of the results of the in- 
quiries made by the committee. 

Dr. Gilbert Child says, " The marriages of blood 
relations have no tendency, per se, to produce degen- 
eration of race." 

Prof. S. H. Dickson, of Philadelphia, in his lect- 
ures on "Scrofulosis and Tuberculosis," makes the 
following statement : " Several writers on both sides 
of the Atlantic — on this side Prof. Bemis — ascribe 
much of tuberculosis and scrofulosis to the marrying 
of relatives — ^physical incest, as it is called. I think 
the truth can be put in a nutshell. I suggest it to 
you, there is a great deal of exaggeration on this sub- 
ject, yet there is much reason for the belief that the 
intermarriage of relatives is dangerous to the offspring, 
not on account of their mere consanguinity, but be- 
cause they are likely to have the same predisposition 
to scrofula, if that predisposition exists in that family. 
. . . Therefore we come to the conclusion that it is 



IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 185 

not an essential result of marriage of consanguinity 
that there should he scrofulous or other degeneracy." 
Dr. Edward Jarvis, the distinguished statistician, in a 
letter to Dr. JSTewman, says : " Cousins, descendants 
from a common ancestry, have a common heritage — 
of good, of evil, of power, and weakness ; and, if these 
join in marriage, their issue have a double chance of 
inheriting whatever qualities they may both ]D0ssess. 
If, then, both parents, although cousins, are perfect in 
constitution and health, and have nothing to transmit 
but power, then their children have a double security 
against constitutional imperfection, and a double war- 
rantee of inherited capacity and strength. The con- 
verse is also true wdth cousins who have imperfections 
and liabilities in common. If they marry, they pro- 
vide a double chance of the repetition of the same 
weaknesses and susceptibilities in their offspring. . . . 
In this view of the matter, the objection to consan- 
guineous marriages lies not in the bare fact of their 
relationship, but in the fear of their having similar 
vitiations of constitution." 

Dr. I^ewman gives the details of thirty-two in- 
stances of consanguineous marriages, in different locali- 
ties. The result, as far as reported, was one hundred 
and twenty-seven children, or nearly an average of four 
to each marriage, and there were instances of eight, 
eleven, twelve, and even fourteen children in a family ; 
while but one marriage proved unproductive, but in 
this case both parties were affected with disease. Of 
the one hundred and twenty-seven children, but four- 
teen died under two years of age, which is eleven per 
cent. ; while in Michigan, in 1870, according to the re- 



186 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

ports of the State Board of Health, the mortality of 
children under two years was nineteen and one-half 
per cent., and in the metropolitan district of 'New 
York, in 1868, it was thirty-eight per cent. 

Dr. ITewman says : " With regard to scrofulous 
children we observe as follows : Either parent, or both, 
we find scrofulous or tuberculous in six cases, !N"os. 3, 
5, 16, 18, 20, and 21, the offspring of which were, so 
far, fifteen children, of which four died young, a com- 
mon percentage ; in reference to health, we find five 
scrofulous and ten healthy, therefore we have from 
partly unhealthy parents two-thirds healthy children.". 

" In regard to healthy or unhealthy organization, 
we find of these one hundred and twenty-seven chil- 
dren deviating from a perfect state, as follows." Five 
scrofulous, above mentioned ; one case of epilepsy and 
one of amaurosis in the same family, with twelve other 
children not thus affected ; one case of two childi'en 
in a family '^ having only two phalangeal bones in the 
index-finger, otherwise they are reported as healthy 
and intelHgent ; " and two deaf-mutes in one family. 
The cases of the deaf-mutes and the child said to be 
" simple " occurred at Panama under circumstances 
not favorable to healthy development. In the same 
report,^ Dr. JSTewman says : " We cannot but notice 
here a fact communicated by Dr. H. Knapp, late pro- 
fessor in the University of Heidelberg, which we add 
to the statistics : In Nassau (Germany), only three 
families estabhshed the village of Dauborn, and kept 
entirely isolated. Their children, therefore, intermar- 

^ "Transactions of the New York State Medical Society," 1869, pp. 
109-130. 



IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 187 

ried ; and at present tlie village has fifteen hundred 
inhabitants, who are of strong constitution, and are 
active, sprightly, intelligent, and healthy. Our in- 
formant had this place directly under his observation, 
and says he neither saw deformity nor insanity, and 
only one case of deaf -mutism ; in fact, the entire race 
was robust and healthful." 

Dr. T. A. McGraw, who has written an interesting 
article on this subject, says : " There can be no doubt 
that close and continual interbreeding has taken place, 
time and again, without any evident injurious conse- 
quences among simple and uncultivated communi- 
ties. J^otable examples are the Pitcaim Island settle- 
ment, formed from the close in-and-in breeding of the 
progeny of four mutineers from the ship Bounty, and 
nine native women ; the small community of fisher- 
men near Brighton, England ; the numerous small 
and isolated villages of Iceland ; and the Basque and 
Bas-Breton settlements among the Pyrenees. . . . We 
must admit, from overwhelming evidence, that under 
such circumstances as the settlements just mentioned 
afforded, consanguinity among married people does 
not necessarily cause evil results to the progeny. If 
it is asked how it would be with men of more civilized 
habits, we are unfortunately obliged to confess that 
there are no statistics whatever on the subject which 
can give us any exact and trustworthy information." ^ 

Dr. Mitchell, of the Edinburgh College of Physi- 
cians, says of idiocy and its relations to marriages of 
consanguinity, that in more than sixty per cent, of the 

^ Dr. T. A. McGraw's "Address on Heredity and Marriage, pp. 12, 
13. 



188 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

cases occurring in the British Isles the condition is 
acquired and not congenital/ 

Of fifteen hundred and fifty-seven patients in the 
insane asylnms of Paris, Auguste Yoisin found none 
that were the result of consanguinity.'' 

The facts that have thus far been collected in re- 
gard to this subject seem to warrant the conclusion 
that close breeding, in itself considered, is not injuri- 
ous ; but, as it tends to ^x and perpetuate the consti- 
tutional defects that have been produced by other 
well-known agencies, it should not be practised by 
careless or inexperienced persons, who do not make a 
judicious selection of their breeding-stock, as they are 
likely to obtain, through its influence, the most un- 
satisfactory results. 

The most obvious objection to close breeding — and 
it is perhaps the only one of importance — is the diffi- 
culty of selecting animals that are free from constitu- 
tional defects, and the danger arising from the ten- 
dency of such defects to become dominant in the off- 
spring. 

It must, however, be admitted that it is an impor- 
tant means of improvement when judiciously prac- 
tised, and that it constitutes the only known method 
of securing an accumulation of the slight variations, 
in a particular direction, that it may be desirable to 
retain and perpetuate. 

The greatest improvement in the form and quali- 

1 Popular Science Monthly, June, 18'72, p. 250. 

^ London Lancet, quoted in the Popular Science MontMy, Decem- 
ber, 18*73, p. l^Q ; and in the Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal^ 
February, IS*??, p. 408. 



m-AND-IN BREEDING. 189 

ties of animals can only be made by those wlio possess 
tlie requisite knowledge and skill to enable them to 
blend and perpetuate all desirable variations, through 
a system of rigorous selection and close breeding, 
without impairing the constitution by an accumula- 
tion of undesii'able characters. 



CHAPTER X. 

CROSS-BKEEDING. 

Ceoss-beeeding, strictly speaking, is the pairing 
of animals belonging to distinct breeds, and, in this 
limited sense, it may be considered the opposite of in- 
and-in breeding. 

The terms " crossing," " making a cross," " out- 
breeding," and "cross-breeding," are, however, fre- 
quently used to indicate the mixture of the blood of 
different families belonging to the same breed. As 
the principle involved in both of these methods is the 
same, and the loose use of these terms is not likely to 
lead to any serious confusion in their application, we 
need not attempt to assign them a more definite 
meaning. 

The advantages of cross-breeding have been strong- 
ly urged by a large number of writers, and in many 
instances it is undoubtedly the best possible practice. 
The improvements that have been effected by cross- 
ing, in particular cases, have been, however, without 
sufficient reason attributed to some direct influence 
arising from the process itself. Some of the best 
authorities on this subject have evidently been misled 
in their attempted explanation of the advantages of 
the system, by placing too much confidence in the 



CROSS-BREEDING. 191 

theory that the male has the greatest influence in 
determining the form and general qualities of the 
offspring/ 

Before attempting to ascertain the effects of cross- 
breeding, in itself considered, it will be well to ex- 
amine some of the cases in which it has been snccess- 
fnllj practised, with especial reference to the condi- 
tions that made it desirable. 

Cross-breeding has, perhaps, been practised to a 
greater extent with sheep than with any other class of 
animals, and among them we find the best examples 
of well-established cross-breeds. In Hampshire the 
old horned breed of sheep, with its " large bones," 
'^high withers," and sharp spine, was crossed with 
rams of the improved Southdown, until its original 
defective characters almost entirely disappeared. 

The improved Hamj)shire are characterized by the 
absence of horns, "a broader back, rounder barrel, 
shorter legs, and superior quality altogether."' 

Some of the leading breeders of the Hampshires 
were not content to rely upon the general superiority 
of the improved Southdowns in improving their 
flocks, but obtained the best rams that could be found 
in the flocks of the most celebrated breeders. Mr. 
William Humphrey, a noted Hampshire breeder, it is 
said, sent to Jonas Webb for one of " his best sheep," 
and Mr. Spooner attributes his success to a great 
extent " in seeking his improvements from such a 
reno^vned flock." ^ 

^ Quarterly Journal of Agriculture^ vol. i., p. 34; Journal of the 
Royal Agricultural Society^ vol. xx., pp. 294-310. 

2 Ibid., p. 300. 8 Ibid., pp. 305-312. 



192 PRINCIPLES OP STOCK-BREEDING. 

In Wiltshire, where the same old horned stock 
originally prevailed, a different system was practised 
— ^the improved Southdown gradually took the place 
of the old breed, which soon disappeared. The im- 
ported Sonthdown ewes were after a time crossed 
with improved Hampshire rams, that already had a 
large proportion of Sonthdown blood, for the pur- 
pose of giving an increase in size/ 

-The Morfe Common sheep of Shropshire were a 
small, line-wooled race, accustomed to short pastures 
and scanty fare. The improved Shropshire, the result 
of a cross of the old race with the Cotswold, Leicester, 
or Southdown, is larger, m^ore compact, fattens more 
rapidly, and in general qualities is better adapted to 
an improved system of husbandry. 

The new Oxfordshire breed, which is highly prized 
in many localities, was obtained by crossing Cotswold 
rams on Hampshire or West Country Down sheep.'* 

" There are few districts in England in which some 
advantage has not been derived from the cross-breed- 
ing of sheep. Even the little mountain-sheep of Wales 
has been greatly improved by the Cheviot ram, a 
larger^ superioi''^ but still a mountain-sheep. 

" At the same time the Cheviots themselves have 
been improved for the butcher by crosses with the 
Leicester, the Cotswold, and the Down. Their prog- 
eny have been increased in size, and fatten more 
readily." ' 

^ Journal of ilie Royal Agricultural Society^ vol. xx., p. 803. 
2 Ibid., p. 308. 

2 Spooncr on " Cross-Breeding." Journal of the Royal Agricultural 
Society, vol. xx., p. 309. 



CROSS-BREEDING. 193 

In all of these cases the object has been to improve 
an inferior breed by ingrafting npon it the snperior 
characteristics of another. The improvement has 
been produced, not from the fact that a male of an- 
other breed has been used, but from the higher breed- 
ing and superior qualities of the males thus selected. 
The superior male is found to be prepotent when 
coupled with females of inferior quality. 

The experience of breeders in making a cross of 
Cheviot rams upon the ewes of the Black-Faced Heath 
breed will furnish some important suggestions in re- 
gard to the real causes of improvement. 

" In this cross," says the intelligent Scotch shep- 
herd, William Hogg, " the independent habits of the 
mountain-flocks were lost, and a mongrel progeny, of 
a clumsy figure, occupied the lowest and warmest of 
the pastures." The cross-bred animals, although re- 
taining largely the characteristics of the original breed, 
were not able to withstand the " hardships and cold 
of winter," and they required better care and better 
pastures than the old race had been accustomed to. 

" Another truth which the process of changing a 
numerous stock has disclosed is, that, in the produce 
of the first crop, and for several successive issues, the 
figure, wool, and other qualities of the Cheviot ram, 
are most conspicuous in the smallest and feeblest of 
the progeny ; while the properties of the mountain- 
breed are more fully exhibited in the strongest and 
most robust of the lambs. This misled many of the 
storemasters. They did not consider that there was 
as much Cheviot blood in the coarsest (as they were 
pleased to call them) as in the finest ; though not so 



194 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

clearly exhibited in its external qnalities. This in- 
duced them to throw aside the best of the lambs and 
select those to breed from which had apparently most 
of the Cheviot figure. This was an additional dis- 
advantage ; for, as it prevailed wherever the experi- 
ment was tried, the mountain-flocks in general were 
smaller and feebler than ever they w^ere known to 
have been ; and were, consequently, more vulnerable 
to bad seasons, a course of which happened to accom- 
pany the change." ^ 

The stability of the characteristics of the old 
mountain - breed was shown in the readiness with 
which the cross-bred animals were " bred back " to 
the original type, and the frequent appearance of the 
old characters by atavic descent after an effort for 
twenty-five years to establish the peculiarities of the 
Cheviot. 

" The black-faced sheep," says Youatt, " seemed 
obstinately to resist the influence of foreign crosses. 
The Leicester, and even the Cheviot blood, added 
little to the value either of the fleece or the carcass, 
while they materially lessened the hardihood of the 
sheep." ^ 

Sir John Sinclair also observes that " the Dishley 
breed is perhaps the best ever reared for a rich, arable 
district ; but the least tincture of this blood is destruc- 
tive to the mountain-sheep, as it makes them incapable 
of withstanding the least scarcity of food." ^ 

The Cheviots, although a mountain-breed adapted 

1 Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. i., p. 1'78. 

2 Youatt on " Sheep," p. 325. 

3 As quoted by Youatt, loc. cit., p. 325. 



CROSS-BREEDING. 195 

to moderate elevations and better pastures than tlie 
black-faces required, were decidedly improved by a 
cross of the improved Leicester/ the conditions in 
wliicb they were placed admitting of a class of ani- 
mals of better-feeding quality. 

The cross of a superior breed on one that is in- 
ferior cannot, then, succeed in producing improvement 
without being accompanied by better management 
and more liberal feeding. After the times described 
by Hogg and Youatt, the Cheviots were extensively 
introduced in the Highlands of Scotland, and their 
success is an evidence of an improved condition of 
agriculture. In the cross-breeding of cattle and horses 
the same influences have determined, to a greater or 
less extent, the success or failure of the practice. 

The advocates of a system of cross-breeding, al- 
most without exception, insist upon the importance 
of making use of males of superior character in all 
essential qualities. " Having duly recognized the 
claims of thorough-bred horses of the first and second 
class," says Mr. Spooner, " we can only advise, with 
regard to the third and inferior classes, that their ser- 
vices be altogether dispensed with, their place being 
taken by three-fourths or half-bred stallions, possess- 
ing bone, substance, and good hunting qualifica- 
tions."" 

He prefers " the services of a first-class, thorough- 
bred stallion .... on the rare occasions when they are 
offered " — but, when they cannot be procured, a part- 
bred stallion is to be selected, provided he is better in 

^ Youatt, he. cit., p. 335. 

^ Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society^ 1865, p. 165. 



196 rPJNCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

the points it is desirable to perpetuate than the pure- 
bred stallions that are within reach. 

The cross of the pure-bred stallion upon mares of 
mixed blood is not, then, to be recommended if the 
stallion is inferior in its characters ; and the general 
rule of breeding, to which there are no exceptions, 
that the best males it is possible to obtain should only 
be used, becomes the guide in practice. 

In an article " On Cross-Breeding Cattle," Mr. 
Murray says : " The importancQ of using, even for cross- 
breeding, none but first-class bulls, can hardly be suf- 
ficiently insisted upon. Indeed, the marked success 
which has attended the use of Short-Horn bulls may 
be attributed not less to their established position than 
to the intrinsic merits of the race ; " ^ and he adds, 
" "We are fully convinced that, even for the purpose 
of cross-breeding, the purer the blood on the paternal 
side, the more clearly will excellence be stamped on 
the progeny." The same writer attributes the failure, 
in cases of imsuccessf ul crossing, to the use of inferior 
bulls that were not able to impress any superior quali- 
ties upon their offspring.^ 

Short-Horn bulls have, undoubtedly, been more 
extensively used in crossing other breeds than any 
others ; but, when the cross has been successful, it can 
only be attributed to the higher breeding and superi- 
ority of the typical characters of such bulls, which 
enabled them to stamp their peculiarities upon the 
carelessly-bred stock they were selected to improve.^ 

^ Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society^ 1866, p. 53. 

2 Loc. cit., pp. 53, 54. 

^ Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society^ vol. xxiii., p. 351. 



CnOSS-BREEDING. 197 

The male must not only possess snperior merit in 
his general characteristics, but he must have the essen- 
tial quahtj of prepotency in transmitting them. 

One difficulty in the way of ingrafting the charac- 
teristics of the Cheviot sheep upon the Black-faced 
mountain-breed, to which we have referred, arose 
from the uniform typical characters and consequent 
prepotency of the race it was proposed to change. 

In crossing English rams upon the old-established 
breeds of France, the same difficulties were experi- 
enced, viz., the prepotency of the French stock, and 
the fact that the English breeds were not adapted to 
the climate and system of management they were sub- 
jected to in their adopted country. 

M. Malingie-l^ouel, director of the agricultural 
school of La Charmoise, has given his experience in 
establishing the Charmoise breed, from which we 
make the following quotations : ^ 

" "When an English ram of whatever breed is put 
to a French ewe, in which term I include the mon- 
grel merinos, the lambs present the following results : 
Most of them resemble the mother more than the 
father ; some show no trace of the father ; a very few 
represent equally the features of both. Encouraged 
by the beauty of these last, one preserves carefully 
the ewe-lambs among them, and when they are old 
enough puts them to an English ram. 

" The products of the second cross, having seventy- 
five per cent, of English blood, are generally more 
like the father than the mother, resembling him in 

1 Translated by Mr. Pusey, in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural 
Society^ vol. xiv., p. 214. 



198 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

shape and features. The fleece also has an English 
character. 

" The lambs thrive, wear a beantifiil appearance, 
and complete the joj of the breeder. He thinks that 
he has achieved a new cross-breed insuring great im- 
provement, and requiring thenceforth only careful 
selection to perpetuate by propagation among them- 
selves the qualities which he has in view. But he has 
reckoned without his host. For no sooner are the 
lambs weaned, than their strength, their vigor, and 
their beauty, begin to decay as the heat of our sum- 
mer increases. Instead of growing, they seem to 
dwindle; their square shapes shrink; they become 
stunted; and, on the threshold of life, put on the 
livery of old age. 

" A violent cold in the head completes their exhaus- 
tion. This is accompanied with a copious flow of 
slimy mucus from the nostrils, constant sneezing, and 
sometimes cough. At last the constitution gives way, 
or, if the animal lasts till autumn, the malady indeed 
ceases, but he remains stunted for life. 

" The time lost was the time of growth, and can- 
not be recovered, for JS'ature never goes backward. 
Henceforth he looks like a foreigner escaped from 
the mortal influence of an inhospitable climate, and 
remains inferior even to our native sheep, which at 
least have health and hardiness in their favor. The 
experiment has sometimes been tried with English 
rams in a third generation, and the symptoms above 
described have arisen even more strongly in propor- 
tion to the stronger admixture of English blood." 

After pointing out some differences obsei'ved in 



CROSS-BREEDING. 199 

the prepotency of several English breeds, M. Malin- 
gie-Nonel says : " If yon pnt a Leicester ram, a -mixed 
ISTew Kent,' or a Sonthdown that is not jpure^ to a 
pnre ewe of any French race, very little English char- 
acter is impressed on the offspring, never less than 
when the ewe is a pnre merino. In this last case, it 
often happens that yon can see no difference between 
lambs that are Leicester-merinos, Kent-merinos, or 
Sonthdown-merinos, and another lamb of the same 
age which is pnre merino. In compensation, how- 
ever, for this feeble influence of the English sire, the 
lambs of snch first crosses have no more difficulty 
than French lambs in getting over the first summer. 
If, on the contrary, the same ewes are put to "nery 
jpure rams of the Southdown or l^ew Kent breed, 
the English , character is more marked than in the 
former cases. 

" In both cases the offspring is reared ; for lambs 
in w^hich the English blood does not exceed one-half 
seem to be reared as easily as pure French lambs. 
But, then, since little improvement is obtained, one is 
tempted to give a new dose of English blood — to put 
the Anglo-French ewes to English rams — ^whereupon 
the disasters described are sure to follow." ' 

After discussing the causes of the state of facts 
above referred to, M. Malingie-]^ouel proceeds as fol- 

^ The New Kent breed was established by Richard Goord, from 
" nine ewes and one ram " of the Romney Marsh breed, and a few 
rams obtained of Mr. "Wall. They were deeply in-bred, and like the 
Southdowns were improved without crossing {Journal of the Royal 
Agricultural Society, vol. vi., p. 263). 

2 Loc. cif., pp. 217, 218. 



200 rRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

lows : " It appeared, tlien, tliat in order to untie the 
Gordian knot whose threads I have traced, inasmuch 
as one could not increase the purity and antiquity of 
the blood of the rams, one must diminish the resist- 
ing power, namely, the purity and antiquity of the 
ewes. With a view to this new experiment, one 
must procure English rams of the purest and most 
ancient race, and unite with them French ewes of 
modern breeds, or rather of mixed blood forming no 
distinct breed at all. It is easier than one might 
have supposed to combine these conditions. 

" On the one hand, I selected some of the finest 
rams of the 'New Kent breed, regenerated by Goord. 
On the other hand, we find in France many border 
countries lying between distinct breeds, in which dis- 
tricts it is easy to find flocks participating in the two 
neighboring races. 

" Thus, on the borders of BeiTy and La Sologne, 
one meets with flocks originally sprung from a mixt- 
ure of the two distinct races that are established in 
those two provinces. Among these, then, I chose 
such animals as seemed least defective, approaching, 
in fact, the nearest to, or rather departing the least 
from, the form which I wished ultimately to produce. 
These I united with animals of another mixed breed, 
picking out the best I could find on the borders of 
La Beauce and Touraine, which blended the Touran- 
gelle and native merino blood of those other two dis- 
tricts. From this mixture was obtained an offspring 
combining the four races of Berry, Sologne, Tou- 
raine, and merino, without decided character, . . . but 
possessing the advantage of being used to our climate 



CROSS-BREEDING. 201 

and management, and bringing to bear on the new 
breed to be formed an inflnence almost annihilated 
by the multiplicity of its component elements. ISTow, 
what happens when one pnts such mixed-blood ewes 
to a pnre jSTew Kent ram ? 

" One obtains a lamb containing fifty-hnndredths 
of the purest and most ancient English blood, with 
twelve and a half hundredths of four different French 
races, which are individually lost in the preponderance 
of English blood, and disappear almost entirely, leav- 
ing the improving type in the ascendant. The influ- 
ence, in fact, of this type was so decided and so pre- 
dominant that all the lambs produced strikingly re- 
sembled each other, and even Englishmen took them 
for animals of their own country. 
• " But what was still more decisive, when these 
young ewes and rams were put together, they pro- 
duced lambs closely resembling themselves, without 
any marked return to the features of the old French 
races from which the grandmother ewes were derived. 
Some slight traces only might perhaps be detected 
here and there by an experienced eye. Even these, 
however, soon disappeared, such animals as showed 
them being carefully weeded out of the breeding- 
flock." ' 

Such was the origin of the Charmoise breed of 
sheep.'' 

M. Girou " supposed that he would more speedily 
obtain fine wool by crossing Roussillon sheep with 

^ Zoc. cit., pp. 220, 221. 

^ For a full description of this valuable breed, see " Encyclopedie 
Pratique de I'Agriculteur," tome x., p. 582. 



202 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

Merino rams, than by uniting the Aveyron breed mth 
the same rams, bnt he was disappointed. 

" The Ronssillon race, being no doubt more ancient 
and possessed of greater potency {force motrice) than 
the Aveyron race, offered greater resistance than the 
latter to the influence of the Merinos ; and, after 
twenty-five years of successive crossing, the primitive 
characters of the Eoussillons still appeared, while the 
crosses of the Aveyron race, after the same length of 
time, could not be distinguished from the Spanish 
sheep. It thus appears that characters long estab- 
lished, and thoroughly incorporated with the consti- 
tution by transmission through many successive gen- 
erations, give to a race or breed a certain fixity of 
type — something of the persistency and individuality 
of a species, by which it is enabled to resist, for a 
length of time, fusion with another race, and continue 
to reproduce its leading characteristics." ^ 

It has been said that " the persons who chiefly re- 
sort to crossing are those who have, up to the present 
time, kept but a very inferior description of stock," ' 
and this is, without doubt, the reason why cross- 
breeding has been found to be, in such cases, an im- 
portant means of improvement. 

In all cases in which cross-breeding has been suc- 
cessfully practised, the object in view has been pre- 
cisely the same, and the reasons that have led to it are 
identical with those that have induced the improvers 
of the pure breeds to resort to the opposite system of 
in-and-in breeding. 

' Journal of the Highland Agriadiural Society, 185'r-'59, p. 29. 
^ Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, vol. xxiii., p. 362. 



CROSS-BREEDING. 203 

In both, cases the practice lias been to select the 
best male it was possible to secure, with the purpose 
of impressing his superior characteristics upon the 
less-favored individuals of the flock or herd. 

The rule laid down by George CuUey, in his " Ob- 
servations on Live-Stock," has apparently been fol- 
lowed by the advocates of both of the so-called " sys- 
tems of breeding," which are in reality but parts of 
the one true method. He says : " It is certainly from 
the hest males and females that the best breeds can be 
obtained or preserved ; to breed in this manner is un- 
doubtedly right, so long as hetter males can be met 
with, not only among our neighbors, but also among 
the most improved breeds in any part of the island, 
or from any part of the world, provided the expense 
does not exceed the proposed advantage. . And when 
you can no longer, at home or abroad, find letter males 
than your own, then, by all means, breed from them — 
whether horses, neat-cattle, sheep, etc. — ^for the same 
rule holds good through every species of domestic ani- 
mals ; but upon no account attempt to breed or cross 
from worse than your own, for that would be acting 
in contradiction to common-sense, experience, and that 
well-established rule, that ' best only can beget best.' " ' 

If it should be admitted that the pure breeds were 
better than cross-bred animals, it would be impossible 
for every one to obtain them in sufficient numbers to 
stock the farm exclusively with them ; but, as well- 
bred males can readily be procured, the greatest im- 
provement in the mass of our farm-stock must be 
made by a system of judicious crossing. 

^ " Observations on Live-Stock," fourth edition, p. 12. 



204 PKINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDIXG. 

The breeding of " grades," wMcli is so largely 
practised in all parts of this country, furnishes a good 
example of the advantages of cross-breeding. What 
are called " natives " here, are animals of mixed blood 
without any fixed characters, and they are therefore 
more readily influenced by a cross of superior blood 
than the local unimproved native breeds of Europe, 
that have more definite characteristics. 

Earl Spencer has remarked ^ that " the worse bred 
the female is," the greater the influence of a well-bred 
male upon the oifspring, and this accords with the 
observations of practical men generally. 

The originator of the Charmoise breed of sheep, 
as we have seen, developed the prepotency of the 
English ram^s used, by mixing the blood of the ewes 
of several native races, and thus destroying in them 
the fixed characters that had previously prevented the 
predominance of the desired characteristics of the 
English breeds. 

As the dominant peculiarities of the pure-bred 
animal are developed by a system of rigorous selec- 
tion and in-breeding in a certain definite direction, 
they will also as readily disappear and become latent, 
if the opposite practice of cross-breeding is resorted 
to, and this is one of the most uniform effects of this 
method of breeding. 

If a cross of two distinct breeds is effected by the 
selection of animals of equal power in the transmis- 
sion of their peculiar characteristics, the tendency is 
to make dominant the original characters that the 
breeds had in common, and to obscure the special 

^ Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society^ vol. i., p. 22. 



CROSS-BREEDIN^G. 205 

characters tliat constituted tlieir distinguisliing cliar- 
acteristics. 

The greater the contrast presented in the two 
breeds, and the greater the specialization of their quali- 
ties through the development of artificial characters, 
the stronger the tendency to obscure the best charac- 
ters of each, and restore the original type from which 
they had been developed. 

In such cases the offspring would in all probability 
prove to be inferior in quality, from the inheritance 
of the defects of both parents, without retaining the 
most desirable characters of either. 

All the best authorities on cross-breeding agree 
that it should not be practised without a definite ob- 
ject, on account of this tendency to the development 
of undesirable variations. 

Mr. Dickson says : "I object to promiscuous cross- 
ing as much as any man. It is to this injudicious sys- 
tem that may be traced the existence of so many mis- 
erable breeds of cattle in the country." ^ 

"We may start, then," says Mr. Spooner, "with 
this principle, that to cross for crossing sake is decided- 
ly wrong / that, imless some specific purpose is sought 
for by crossing, it is far better to cultivate a pure 
breed." ^ 

Prof. Tanner remarks that, " in the case of pure- 
bred animals, there should be no opposing influence 
to weaken the hereditary tendencies of the offsj)ring, 
but on the other hand a concurrent and sympathetic 
nature, so that the hereditary character may be con- 

^ Quarterly Jo\irnal of Agriculture^ vol, vii., p. 508. 

^ Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society^ vol. xx., p. 298. 



20G PPJXCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

jSLmied and strengthened. Anything like a cross 
shonld be most jealously guarded against, as introduc- 
ing a conflict of influences which impairs the charac- 
ter of the race." ^ 

Mr. Wright, in discussing this subject, says, " There 
is, for instance, a well-known strain of Buff Cochins, 
of marked excellence in every point, but which has a 
strong tendency to breed a white feather in the cock's 
tail. 

" ISTow, it is perfectly possible, by a judicious cross 
from some other strain, and careful selection afterward, 
to get rid of this objectionable feature ; and we will 
sup2>ose an individual yard in which this has been so 
far accomplished that in only a small proportion does 
the hated white feather appear. This desired result, 
with a little care, will now be easily maintained while 
such a yard is bred to itself, or with any other not too 
far removed from it in blood ; but if crossed from a 
strain thorougKly distinct and alien, or what poultry- 
men call too " sudden " a cross (for, without knowing 
the reason, they have found the evil of such often, and 
know it well), the old white feather may very proba- 
bly reappear in all its original strength, though the 
new blood contained no tendency to it whatever. It 
is simply the cross of strange blood which gives the 
impulse to reversion. In the same way, to take the 
case mentioned just now, the pure white Spanish face 
being simply the result of assiduous breeding, and the 
most extreme care being needed for its preservation, 
the simple fact of crossing two entirely distinct strains 
gives the impulse to revert to the red face which be- 

* Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, vol. xxii,, p. 1 1. 



CKOSS-BREEDING. 207 

longed to tlie Minorca — in all probability the original 
breed from wbicb it was derived." ^ 

The value of cross-bred animals for breeding-pur- 
poses is diminished by this tendency to reversion, and 
the consequent loss of the power of transmitting any 
definite characters to their offspring. 

It is generally admitted that, in the cases in which 
improvements are effected by crossing, the greatest 
change is produced by the first cross, and that the im- 
provement resulting from a repetition of the process 
is uniformly slight. 

This would undoubtedly be the case from the prin- 
ciples already presented : the greater the difference be- 
tween the two parents, when one of them is prepotent 
in the transmission of its characters, the greater would 
be the resemblance of the offspring to the one, and 
the wider the divergence from the characters of the 
.other parent ; and, as the resemblance of the parents 
to each other would be gradually increased by succes- 
sive crosses, the difference between the offspring and 
the inferior parent would as gradually diminish 

It is claimed that the tendency to develop undesir- 
able characters is increased by each successive cross ; ^ 
but the facts relating to this subject, in the history of 
the breeds that have been established by crossing, have 
not been recorded with sufficient exactness to furnish 
conclusive proof of the correctness of this opinion. It 
does not, however, appear to be improbable that such 

1 " Book of Poultry," p. 126. 

2 Journal of tJie Royal Agricultural Society, vol. xxiii., p. 352, vol. 
XX., p. 296 ; Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. i., p. 178, vol. vii., 
p. 497; Sinclair's "Code of Agriculture," p. 95. 



208 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

may be tile case, from the fact that in each successive 
cross the relative potency of the pure-bred male would 
be diminished, as the females to which he is bred are 
improved in their characters. 

On the other hand, it might seem probable that 
the improvement of the female would increase the 
tendency to a predominance of the desired characters, 
and thus intensify the influence of the male in the 
further improvement of the family. But cross-bred 
animals do not, as a rule, transmit to their ofl'spring, 
as dominant characters, the peculiarities that they have 
derived from a superior breed, even when they appear 
to predominate in their organization. 

When both parents are cross-bred animals — even 
in cases in which they both resemble the superior race 
from which they have derived their most obvious 
characteristics — the prevailing tendency in their pow- 
ers of transmission is shown in the frequent recur- 
rence of remote ancestral characters in their offspring. 

In attempts to establish a new breed by crossing, 
this tendency to atavic transmission can only be over- 
come by a persistent and long-continued system of 
selection. " Changes, in fact, by crossing, are not to 
be effected in a short space of time ; you must look 
forward to several years of constant exertion, before 
you can hope, in this manner, to alter your stock." ^ 

Mr. Hogg says : " By the attempt which has been 
made to renovate the Scottish flocks by the Cheviot 
blood, we see the unexpected length of time necessary 
for completing and confirming the change. 

" No class of animals which I am acquainted with 

1 Blacklock on "Sheep," p. 115. 



CROSS-BEEEDING. 209 

adhere more tenaciously to family distinctions than 
sheep, and the longer the blood has been kept pnre 
and nnmixed with that of another family, the more 
powerfully do they resist a foreign connection ; and 
in the case under our immediate consideration, the 
opposition to a coalition of natures is doubly power- 
ful, as it is a forcing of the creature farther from a 
state of nature into one more artificial, more depend- 
ent, and more directly under the management of man. 
. . . After a course of twenty or twenty-five years, at 
which period the Cheviot peculiarities are got tolera- 
bly well-established, and every attribute of the old 
race seems to be completely suppressed, an individual 
lamb will, in some generations, still exhibit the wild 
air and shaggy coat of the ancient maternal line." ^ 

Sir John Sinclair remarks that, " as to any attempt 
at improvement by crossing two distinct breeds or 
races, one of which possesses the properties which it 
is wished to obtain, or is free from the defects which 
it is desirable to remove, it requires a degree of judg- 
ment and perseverance to render such a plan success- 
ful as is very rarely to be met with." "^ 

In summing up the arguments in favor of cross- 
breeding, Mr. Spooner says : ^ Although the benefits 
are most evident in the first cross, after which, from 
pairing the cross-bred animals, the defects of one breed 
or the other, or the incongruities of both, are perpet- 
ually breaking out, yet, unless the characteristics and 
conformation of the two breeds are altogether averse 
to each other, l^ature opposes no barrier to their suc- 

* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. i., pp. 176-1 '79. 
2 "Code of Agriculture," p. 95. 
10 



210 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

cessful admixture ; so thatj in the conrse of time, by 
the aid of selection and careful weeding, it is practi- 
cable to establish a new breed altogether/ . . . Let ns 
conclude," he then says, "by repeating the advice 
that, when equal advantages can be attained by keep- 
ing a pure breed of sheep, such pure breed should 
unquestionably be preferred ; and that, although cross- 
ing for the purposes of the butcher may be practised 
with impunity, and even with advantage, yet no one 
should do so for the purpose of establishing a new 
breed, unless he has clear and well-defined views of 
the object he seeks to accomplish, and has duly stud- 
ied the principles on which it can be carried out, and 
is determined to bestow for the space of half a life- 
time his constant and unremitting attention to the 
discovery and removal of defects." ^ 

From the variety of improved breeds that can now 
be obtained, adapted to almost every variety of climate 
and system of management, it cannot be desirable to 
attempt the formation of a new breed, as any special 
qualities that may be required under particular cir- 
cumstances can be more readily obtained by a modifi- 
cation of the characteristics of some existing breed 
that approximates in its qualities to the proposed 
standard. 

As cross-breeding among cattle, sheep, and swine, 
can only be recommended for the production of ani- 
mals intended for the butcher, it may be well to con- 
sider some of the advantages arising from its judicious 
practice for this purpose. 

' Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society^ vol. xx., p. 311. 
^ Loc. cit., p. 313. 



CROSS-BREEDING. 211 

A large proportion of our farm-stock, for a long 
time to come, must necessarily consist of the so-called 
" natives " and the grades that have been produced 
from them bj various crosses. These animals have 
the advantage of hardiness, but they are not good 
feeders, and do not arrive at maturity at as early an 
age as the modern pure breeds. When crossed with 
the best of the meat-producing breeds, they are at 
once improved in these important qualities in which 
they were before deficient, while in the quality of 
their flesh they may be equal, if not superior, to the 
more highly-bred animals of the pure breeds. 

In the pure breeds in which the fattening qualities 
have been highly developed, an excessive activity of 
the formation of fat may be readily induced, in con- 
nection with a deficiency in lean flesh that diminishes 
the real value of the animal when it reaches its final 
destination on the block. The value of such animals 
consists in their ability to transmit to their offspring 
their general form, with the tendency to matm-e early 
and fatten rapidly. 

When such animals are crossed upon natives or 
grades of inferior quality, it is not surprising to see 
in their offspring a quality of flesh that in its propor- 
tions of lean and fat is superior to that of either par- 
ent. 

In speaking of a cross of the Lincoln and Leices- 
ter sheep, Mr. Mosscrop says : " The cross improves 
the size, the quantity of wool, and the quality of the 
mutton, although perhaps the distinguishing feature 
of the pure-bred Leicester — ^propensity to fatten at 
an early age — is somewhat impaired. 



212 rKINCIPLES OF STOCK-BEEEDIXG. 

" The greater admixture of lean mutton, however, 
more than compensates for this, b j giving a superior 
value to the carcass." ^ 

In the cross of a superior breed upon the average 
stock of the farm, the best results can only be ob- 
tained by a better system of feeding than the original 
stock had been accustomed to. The old Scotch say- 
ing, that " the breed is in the mouth," expresses an 
important truth in stock management. 

An increase in size and the ability to fatten rapid- 
ly would become a source of weakness rather than an 
advantage in animals that are unable to obtain a suf- 
ficient supply of food to give a full and active devel- 
opment of the system. 

"With every improvement in "blood" a corre- 
sponding improvement in feeding and management 
must be made, or E'ature will surely thwart our plans 
by asserting her supremacy, and adapting the animal 
to the conditions in which it is placed. 

It seems to be the prevailing opinion that the cross 
of a large male upon the females of a small breed is 
not advisable, on account of the difficulty in parturi- 
tion which, it is presumed, would arise from the dis- 
proportionate size of the offspring. 

This belief must be founded on theoretical consid- 
erations only, as difficulties of the kind do not often 
occur in actual practice. After an extended experi- 
ence during the past ten years, in crossing rams of 
the Cotswold, Lincoln, and Southdown breeds on com- 

^ Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society^ 1866, p. 329. For the 
advantages of crossing pure-bred and common swine, see Harris on 
"The Pig," p. 36. 



CROSS-BREEDING. 213 

mon-grade merino ewes, I have failed to meet with a 
single instance of difficult labor arising from snch 
influence. 

In many instances, for the sake of experiment, 
the smallest ewes were selected for crossing with the 
largest rams, bnt in no case was the labor nnnsuallj 
severe or protracted. 

In establishing the " Charmoise " breed of sheep, 
M. Mahngie-]^onel tell ns that he frequently bred 
his mixed-blood ewes, that did not weigh more than 
twenty-five kilogrammes, to rams of the New Kent 
breed that weighed over one hundred kilogrammes, 
and that, in over two thousand cases of such contrast 
in the parents, he observed but a single " accident " 
from the disproportionate size of the lambs.' 

The size of the young animal at the time of birth 
is evidently determined by the dam, while its devel- 
opment after birth may be influenced by the inherited 
qualities of either parent. 

In the vicinity of large towns a peculiar system 
of cross-breeding is successfully practised in produc- 
ing early lambs for the market. 

Pure-bred rams of any of the improved English 
breeds may be used for this purj)Ose, but the South- 
downs, from their superior quality of flesh, are gener- 
ally preferred. 

As the rapid growth and development of the 
lambs is of the first importance, the ewes, which are 
selected from common-grade flocks, should be strong 
and healthy, although perhaps in low flesh, and, above 
all, good milkers. 

' " Encyclopedic pratique de I'Agriculteur," vol. x., p. 595. 



214 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING 

After the lambs are yeaned — about the first of 
March — the ewes should receive a liberal ration of 
grain and roots, to promote the secretion of milk, and, 
at the same time, improve their condition in flesh. 
At the age of two or three weeks the lambs will learn 
to eat meal and turnips, which should be placed in 
boxes to which they have ready access, in pens that 
their dams cannot enter. 

With good shelter, which must of course be pro- 
vided, and a system of high feeding, the lambs are 
ready for the market when from seven to ten weeks 
old, the highest prices being paid for the earliest lots. 

If not too late in the season, from four to five dol- 
lars per head can be obtained for good ones, while in- 
ferior or late lots are sold at much lower prices. 

After the lambs are sold, the ewes are fattened 
and sold for mutton, soon after shearing. 

"With the exception of the pure-bred ram, the en- 
tire flock is thus disposed of before the close of the 
year, the ewes frequently bringing one dollar per head 
more than their original cost.^ 

A new flock of ewes may then be procured, and 
the same method repeated. 

The essentials of success in this method of man- 
agement are, a high-bred ram that can impress upon 
his offspring the ability to mature early, high feeding 
to secure the greatest possible activity of this inherited 
tendency, and good shelter. 

* For details of Mr. Taylor's system of management, see The Culti- 
vator, 1862, pp. 77, 160, 174. 



CHAPTEE XL 

RELATIVE mFLUENCE OF PAEENTS. 

Theee are many theories in regard to the relative 
influence of parents upon their offspring, some of 
which, without sufficient reason, have been quite gen- 
erally accepted as established physiological truths. 
The Highland Agricultural Society of Scotland, in 
1825, awarded prizes to four essays ^ on this subject, 
that were presented for competition. 

In the first volume of " Transactions " of the soci- 
ety, Mr. Boswell's essay is published in full, while ab- 
stracts only of the others are given. 

Mr. Christian claims that " any hypothesis which 
would assign a superiority, or set limits to the influ- 
ence of either sex in the product of generation, is un- 
sound and inadmissible." His essay is but briefly 
noticed, yet, so far as the influence of sex alone is 
concerned, his position has not been successfully con- 
troverted. The theory advanced by Mr. Boswell, 

^ These essays were written by John Boswell, Rev, Henry Berry, 
Mr. Christian, and H. N. Dallas, in answer to the following question, 
which was presented by the society for discussior ; " Whether the 
breed of live-stock connected with agriculture be susceptible of the 
greatest improvement from the qualities conspicuous in the male, or 
from those conspicuous in the female parent ? " (" Transactions of the 
Highland Agricultural Society," vol. i., p. 11). 



216 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

that the male had the greatest influence in determin- 
ing the characters of the offspring, became quite 
popular, from the apparent indorsement it received 
by the society, as it was the only one of the prize 
essays that was published in full. 

As the cases cited by Mr. Boswell in proof of his 
theory are, almost without exception, susceptible of a 
different interpretation, the males used being more 
highly bred than the females, and therefore likely to 
be prepotent in the transmission of their quahties, his 
conclusions as to the superior influence of the male 
are not sustained by the evidence presented. More- 
over, we find on record a large number of as striking 
instances of the resemblance of the offspring to the 
female parent, which, in themselves, must be fatal to 
the theory. 

In the essay by Mr. Berry, a preponderance of the 
influence of either parent on account of sex is denied. 
The best-bred animal, however, is believed to have 
the greatest influence in determining the peculiarities 
of the offspring. Of the instances given by Mr. Berry 
to illustrate his position, the following are quoted on 
account of their bearing upon the theory of Mr. Bos- 
well, already noticed : " The writer," says Mr. Berry, 
" has been for some years in possession of an improved 
breed of pigs, which are chiefly of a sandy or brown 
color. His sows of this breed crossed with common 
boars almost invariably produce litters of pigs of their 
own color. At the present moment he has a litter of 
eleven pigs from a brown sow of the improved breed, 
by a black-and-white boar of the common breed. 
The young pigs possess all the characteristics of the 



RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF PARENTS. 217 

dam, and are of precisely the same color. In litters 
of pigs got by the improved boars from country sows, 
the color of the improved race also predominates in a 
similar manner. . . . 

" The writer's brother was lately in possession of 
well-bred pigs, the most striking characteristic of 
which was a short, pricked ear. The produce of these 
with the large pendent-eared swine of ]N"orth Wales 
was invariably similar in the ear to the higher-bred 
animal, whether male or female." ^ The number of 
cases in which the offspring resembles the male are 
undoubtedly more numerous than the cases of resem- 
blance to the female, for the obvious reason that the 
males selected for breeding are, as a rule, more highly 
bred than the females with which they are coupled, 
and they have also more numerous offspring from 
which the cases of resemblance are selected. 

Those who overlook this fact, as is evidently the 
case with Mr. Boswell, fall into the error of attribut- 
ing the greater number of observed resemblances of 
offspring to the male parent to a predominating influ- 
ence of sex. 

The importance of securing males of the best 
quality, that from their superior breeding will be 
likely to be prepotent in the transmission of their 
characteristics, cannot be too strongly urged as one of 
the readiest means of improvement. 

" It is generally admitted as a fact proved, that in 
the ox, horse, and other domestic animals, the purer 
or less mixed the breed is, there is the greater proba- 
bility of its transmitting to the offspring the qualities 

* " Transactions of the Highland Agricultural Society," vol. i., p. 41. 



218 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

it possesses, whether these be good or bad. Economi- 
cal purposes have made the male in general the most 
important, simply because he serves for a considerable 
number of females. 

" The consequence of this has been that more at- 
tention has been paid to the blood or purity of race 
of the stallion, bull, ram, and boar, than to that of the 
females; and hence it may be the case that these 
males more frequently transmit their qualities to the 
offspring than do the inferior females with which 
they are often made to breed. But this circumstance 
can scarcely be adduced as a proof that the male, 
cceteris jparibus^ influences the offspring more than 
the female." ^ 

IsTotwithstanding the predominant influence of the 
" best-bred " parent is the rule, the intensity of other 
conditions, in many cases, interferes and produces un- 
expected variations. If high breeding has been prac- 
tised with reference to a single quality only, as, for 
instance, speed in the horse, and the qualities that 
give strength and constitution are neglected, the one- 
sided development of the animal may produce an un- 
stable ^condition of the organization that is not favor- 
able to uniformity in the transmission of the single 
character it is proposed to perpetuate. 

Stonehenge, in noticing such exceptions to the 
general rule, says : " My own belief in this matter, 
founded upon observations made during a long series 
of years, on the horse as well as the dog, is, that no 
rule can be laid down with any certainty. Much 

* Dr. Allen ThompsoB, article " Generation," in " Cyclopaedia of 
Anatomy and Physiology," vol. ii., p. 472. 



RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF PARENTS. 219 

depends upon the comparative physical power and 
strength of constitution in each parent — even more, 
perhaps, than the composition of the blood. 

" There have been many instances of two brothers 
being used in the stud, both among horses and grey- 
hounds, in which one has almost invariably got his 
stock resembling himseK, in all particulars, not even 
excluding color, while the descendants of the other 
have rarely been recognizable as his. Thus among 
horses the Touchstones have been mostly brown or 
dark bay, and as a lot have shown a high form as 
race-horses; while the Launcelots have been of all 
colors, and have been below mediocrity on the turf.* 
Several examples of the same nature may be quoted 
from among greyhounds, such as Eanter, Gipsey 
Prince, and Gipsey Royal, three brothers whose stock 
was as different as possible, but the fact is so gener- 
ally recognized that it is not necessary to dwell upon 
it. 

" I^Tow, surely this difference in the power of trans- 
mitting the likeness of the sire, when the blood is ex- 
actly the same as it is observed to extend over large 
numbers, can only depend upon a variation in indi- 
vidual power. ]^ot only does this apply to the males, 
but the females also show the same difference." ^ 

After citing several other instances of such varia- 
tions, Stonehenge concludes by recommending breed- 
ers to be guided by his thirteenth axiom, which is as 
follows : " The purer or less mixed the breed, the 
more likely it is to be transmitted unaltered to the 

* Touchstone and Launcelot were full brothers. 
^ " The Horse," by Stonehenge, p. 147. 



220 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

offspring. Hence, whidieyer parent is of the purest 
blood will be generally more represented in the off- 
spring; but, as the male is usually more carefully 
selected, and of purer blood than the female, it gen- 
erally follows that he exerts more influence than she 
does ; the reverse being the case when she is of more 
unmixed blood than the sire." ' 

Stonehenge is undoubtedly correct in the opinion 
that this axiom, on the whole, is the safest guide to 
the breeder in making his selection of animals with 
reference to the relative potency that may be expected 
in the parents. The cases that he cites of full broth- 
ers transmitting different characters to their offspring, 
may be readily explained in accordance with princi- 
ples that have already been presented, and it is, there- 
fore, unnecessary to assume that they form exceptions 
to the general rule that the best-bred parent has the 
greatest influence upon the apparent characteristics of 
the offspring. 

An examination of the pedigrees of the animals 
in question will show that several sub-families of the 
breed are represented in their ancestry, and we might 
reasonably expect that full brothers would inherit 
their leading characteristics from different branches 
of the family tree, which they in tm-n might trans- 
mit to their offspring. 

A long course of breeding in the same definite 
direction, or within the limits of the same family, 
would be required to secure uniformity in the domi- 
nant characters transmitted by animals closely related. 

* Loc. cit., p. 139. See also Journal of the Royal Agricultural So- 
ciety^ vol. xxii., p. 9, and vol. i., p. 24. 



PxELATrVE INFLUENCE OF PARENTS. 221 

M. Girou believed that tlie relative a^e and vio-or 
of the parents determined their relative influence in 
moulding the characters of their offspring, and Stone- 
henge, in the paragraph above quoted, appears to be 
inclined to accept the theory as at least a plausible 
one. When all other conditions are equal, it may be 
true that the relative strength of constitution and 
physical vigor of the parents may, to some extent, 
determine their relative influence upon the dominant 
characters of their offspring, but there is no evidence 
that such influence is sufficiently intense to counteract 
or overcome, in all cases, the other causes of heredi- 
tary transmission. I have frequently observed in- 
stances of animals decidedly deficient in strength and 
vigor that were prepotent, even when coupled with 
those that were remarkable for their high constitu- 
tional development. 

It cannot be doubted, however, that in cases of 
marked immaturity, or of an impaired condition of 
the system from extreme old age, the powers of trans- 
mission are less strongly marked than they are in the 
meridian of health and development ; but these are 
extreme cases, that cannot be relied upon as indicating 
the normal laws of the function of reproduction. 

The excessive use of the male impairs his powers 
of procreation, and undoubtedly diminishes the po- 
tency with which he transmits his qualities.* 

When there is no marked prepotency on the part 
of either parent, the male offspring frequently resem- 
ble the father and the female resemble the mother.'' 

* " Massachusetts Agricultural Report," 1860, p. 172. 

* Colin's "Physiologie comparee," vol. ii,, p. 535; Journal of the 



222 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

This is often the case in the transmission of dis- 
ease, as has already been noticed in the chapter on 
hereditary diseases. Of two hundred and fourteen 
cases of consumption recorded by Lugol, one hundred 
and six were males and one hundred and eight fe- 
males ; of these, sixty-three males inherited the disease 
from their fathers and forty-three from their mothers : 
and sixty-one females inherited the disease from their 
mothers and forty-seven from their fathers. 

Phillips gives the history of two hundred and 
sixty-four cases of insanity, from which we learn 
that, of one hundred and seventeen males, sixty-four 
inherited the disease from their fathers and fifty-three 
from their mothers ; of one hundred and forty-seven 
females, eighty inherited the disease from their moth- 
ers and sixty-seven from their fathers.^ 

The peculiar horny excrescence on the skin of the 
porcupine-men (Lambert family), that was transmitted 
for several generations, was limited to the males of the 
family.'* 

The following case is reported by Dr. Stewart : " A 
single man aged twenty-four years, and the eldest son 
of a family consisting of two sons and two daughters, 
has well-iRSirked pityriasis versicolor (a disease of the 
skin) affecting his chest, back, and arms, and which 
was first observed when he was about fourteen years 
of age ; his brother, twenty years of age, now has 

Boi/al Agricultural Society, vol. xvi., pp. 21-35 ; Ribot on " Heredity," 
p. 2 ; Darwin's " Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. ii., 
p. 93. 

1 Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, vol. xvi., pp. 21, 35. 

2 British and Foreign Medico- Chirurgical Review, April, 1861, p. 
246. 



RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF PARENTS. 223 

it, thoiigli not to the same extent ; and his father, pa- 
ternal uncles, paternal grandfather, and seven male 
consins on the paternal side, have all been similarly 
affected ; the disease, strictly limited to the males, usu- 
ally appeared in all of them at puberty, and disap- 
peared about the age of forty or forty-five years ; while 
the females of the family, although not suffering from 
it themselves, have transmitted it to their male chil- 
dren. Atavism through the opposite sex occurred 
when females intervened to check its direct transmis- 
sion to males." ^ 

This disease of the skin is not, however, confined to 
males, and cases are recorded in which it has been hm- 
ited in a family to females. Mr. Sedgwick, in his re- 
marks on color-blindness, says : " An analysis of upward 
of two hundred cases shows that the proportion of 
males affected is nine-tenths of the whole. But as I 
had occasion to state with reference to the same point 
in ichthyosis, this apparent preference for the male 
sex is not due to any peculiar inaptitude in the female 
sex to the defect ; for when it has primarily affected 
the latter, its sexual limitation is complete, as in the 
interesting case published by Mr. Cunier, where the 
defect occurred in thirteen individuals belonging to 
five generations of one family, all of whom were fe- 
males." ^ 

Ribot remarks that " the resemblance between par- 
ents and children may undergo such metamorphoses 
as shall cause the child to resemble at one time the 

* British and Foreign Medico- Chirurgical Review, A.^v\\ 1863, p. 449. 
» Ibid., April, 1861, p. 253 ; " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiol- 
ogy," vol. iv., p. 1454. 



224 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

father, and at another the mother. Girou de Buza- 
reingues, in his work ' De la Generation,' containing 
some cnrions facts observed by him, tells us that he 
knew two brothers who in early life resembled their 
mother, while the sister resembled the father. 

" These resemblances were such as to strike all who 
saw them. ' But now,' says he, ' and ever since their 
youth, the two boys resemble the father, while the 
daughter has ceased to be like him.' " ' 

Cases not unfrequently occur in which the disease 
or defect is limited to one sex and transmitted by the 
other, as in the case of ichthyosis above noticed. 

" In the following cases of sebaceous tumors of the 
scalp, which occurred in the practice of Dr. Henry 
Stewart, and which were hereditarily limited to the 
female sex, in the first case for ten and in the second 
case for ^ve generations, it will be observed that in 
the first case limitation by age as well as by sex oc- 
curred, and also that some of the females derived the 
inheritance from their paternal grandmother by atavic 
descent, which affords an additional proof of the influ- 
ence of sex, for, except when a male thus intervened to 
arrest the appearance of the disease, the inheritance 
was direct from parent to child. . . . 

" The wife of a painter, aged fifty-four years, has 
thirty-three sebaceous tumors of the scalp, none of 
which are larger than a walnut ; but thirteen years ago 
nine sebaceous tumors, varying in size from a nutmeg 
to a small orange, were excised by the late Mr. Mor- 
ton, with considerable relief to the severe headaches 
she had previously suffered from ; her daughter and 
' Ribot on "Heredity," p. 3. 



RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF PARENTS. 225 

her granddaughter are both affected by them, her 
sons are perfectly free; her brothers' daughters are 
troubled with them, as well as several female cousins 
of different degrees of relationship ; her mother, 
grandmother and female relations backward for seven 
generations, were similarly affected; no female who 
had attained her tenth year of age was without them, 
while none of the males in the family had ever had 
them. . . . 

" A single woman aged thirty years, the only child 
of her parents, and suffering from phthisis in the sec- 
ond stage, which she has inherited from her mother's 
family, has ten sebaceous tumors on the scalp, varying 
in size from a nutmeg to a pea, and which were first 
observed when she was about fifteen years of age ; these 
tumors have been common to the females of her moth- 
er's family — her mother, maternal grandmother, ma- 
ternal great-grandmother, and maternal great-great- 
grandmother, all had them, and so likewise have sev- 
eral female cousins on the mother's side of the first 
and second degrees of relationship ; all the females, 
but none of the males in the family have suffered 
from them." ' 

Mr. Sedgwick also reports a case of warts on the 
hands of the mother during childhood (they disap- 
peared after puberty), that were transmitted to her 
three daughters, while her two sons were exempt. 

" In the report of hereditary malformation of the 
hands, affecting ten generations of the same family, it 
is stated that 'it was the women only who had the 

^ British and Foreign Medico- Chirurgical Review^ April, 1863, pp. 
450, 451. 



226 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

misfortune of entailing the defect on tlieir off- 
spring.' " ^ 

A case of cleft iris (wliicli is the analogue of hare- 
lip) is recorded by Mr. Sedgwick, who sums up the 
details as follows : " The chief points of interest in 
the case are — 1. The transmission of the defect with- 
out its being shared in by the mother ; 2. That, while 
two of her three sons had the defect, her three daugh- 
ters were free from it ; and, lastly, that the maternal 
grandfather, the maternal grand-uncle, the maternal 
uncle, and the son of this last named, all shared in the 
defect, which shows that the inheritance in this case 
extended to at least four generations." ^ 

According to Mr. Wilde, " In a family of thirteen, 
in the county of Sligo, mute twins occurred twice, be- 
ing the seventh and eighth births : in the former both 
children were mute females ; in the latter, a male and 
female, the boy not mute. Of the entire thirteen 
births in that family, five were males, none of whom 
presented any defect; and eight were females, of 
whom seven were deaf and dumb ; the order of the 
birth of the mutes being the third, fourth, fifth, 
eighth, ninth, and eleventh." The same author 
states that " the proportion of sexes of the deaf and 
dumb in England and Wales, where one in 1,738 of 
the inhabitants was affected, is 100 males to 82.9 fe- 
males ; in Scotland, where one in 1,340 of the inhab- 

^ Edinhurgh Medical and Surgical Journal, vol. iv., p. 252, ISOS, as 
quoted in British and Foreign Medico- Cliirurgical Review, J^^ljj 1S61, 
p. 148, note. 

' British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review^ April, 1861, p. 
249. 



RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF PARENTS. 227 

itants was affected, is 100 males to 80.0 females ; in 
Ireland, where one in 1,380 of the inhabitants was 
affected, is 100 males to Y4.5 females ; in Prussia, 
where one in 1,360 of the inhabitants was affected, is 
100 males to 78.0 females — the last statement being 
taken from M. Bandin's statistics." * 

Mr. Sedgwick reports a case of chronic rhenmatic 
gout, which made its appearance "gradually, in a 
woman at the age of thirty years, and the joints of 
whose hands are now, at the age of forty-three years, 
much crippled and deformed ; her mother, who died 
at the age of forty-six years, suffered greatly from 
chronic rheumatic gout, which had commenced thir- 
teen years previously, and which had thoroughly 
crippled and deformed the joints of both hands; 
there were three brothers and four sisters, the eldest 
of whom was a brother aged forty-five years, all of 
whom have been free from any similar affection ; and 
in another case which is at present under my obser- 
vation, in which a girl, aged eighteen years, has the 
hands and feet dreadfully crippled by the same affec- 
tion, which began at the age of fourteen years ; her 
mother, maternal aunt, and maternal grandmother, 
have all suffered in the same way, while the males of 
the family have been exempt." " 

Mr. Sedgwick reports the following case, which 
occurred in his own practice : 

" Mrs. A , under the age of forty years, and 

the mother of seven children, has not had for many 

^ From " Report of Census in Ireland," as quoted by Mr. Sedgwick 

in British and Foreign Medico-Cliirurgical JRevieto, July, 1861, p. 141. 

2 British and Foreign Medico- Chirurgical Bevi<no, July, 1862, p. 168. 



228 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

years a sound tooth, the decay having begnn very 
early in life ; she has no brothers, bnt there are three 
sisters, younger than herself, whose teeth are in a 
similar state, and in all of whom the decay commenced 
at a very early age ; their mother was similarly affect- 
ed in the teeth, and, like her four daughters, ' was a 
martyr to the toothache.' 

" Of Mrs. A 's seven children, five are girls, 

in four of whom, aged respectively sixteen, twelve, 
nine, and seven years, the teeth began to decay at the 
age of two years or soon afterward ; in the youngest 
girl, aged two years and a quarter, the teeth are not 
decayed, but the dentition has been difficult. 

" Of the two boys, the third and fifth children in 
the order of birth, one died at the age of three years, 
and the other has attained the age of four years, with- 
out any decay in their teeth. The father of these 
children has sound teeth. 

'"' Of Mrs. A 's three sisters, the eldest has had 

four children, two boys, aged fifteen and five years, 
with sound teeth; and two girls, aged thirteen and 
three years, with decayed teeth. The two other sis- 
ters of Mrs. A have no children." ^ 

Mr. Sedgwick reports the following case of the 
hereditary procreation of twins by one of his female 
patients : " The mother, the maternal aunt, the ma- 
ternal grandmother, and the maternal great-grand- 
mother, have all had twins, but none of the sons in 
these families have ever been known to transmit in 
this way a double heritage, although some of them 

* British and Foreign Medico- Chirurgical Review, April, 1863, p. 
454. 



RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF PAP.ENTS. 229 

have been twins, witli twin-brotliers, botli of whom 
bave, in some instances, married and bad large fami- 
lies of cbildren." * 

Cases are on record of renal calculi inherited from 
tbe mother,^ but as these might be attributed to intra- 
uterine development, the following case is of interest, 
as showing direct transmission of the disease by the 
father : " Mr. Squire gives the case of a still-born male 
child that he had the opportunity of examining, where 
the calices and the pelvis of the kidneys were filled 
with numerous uric-acid calculi, some of the size of 
small peas ; the father had been operated on for stone, 
and was then passing uric-acid calculi by the urethra, 
and he was a continual sufferer from marked symp- 
toms of the uric-acid diathesis." ' 

"Yenette relates the case of two brothers who 
had an hereditary aversion to cheese ; their mother 
had a decided taste for cheese, but the repugnance of 
the father was such that at only the smell of it he 
was ready to faint." " 

The following case was observed by Michaelis: 
" Every one of the "indle posterity of a noble family 
at Hamburg, dating back to the great-grandfather, and 
remarkable for their military talents, was, at the age 
of forty years, attacked with madness ; there remained 
only a single descendant, an officer, like his fathers, 
who was forbidden by the senate of the town to 

^ British and Foreign Medico- Cliirurgical Review^ July, 1861, p. 
148. 

* " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. ii., p. 336. 

^ British and Foreign Medico- Chirxirgical Review^ July, 1863, p. 
166. 4 Ibid., p. 164. 



230 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BPiEEDING. 

marry : tlie critical age arrived, and he lost his rea- 
son." ' 

The numerons cases in which peculiarities belong- 
ing exclusively to one sex are transmitted by the other 
are of particular interest, as they illustrate the manner 
in which resemblances are sometimes transmitted by 
atavic descent. 

Mr. Talcott reports the following case. He says : 
" I had a fine cow with nice bag and teats, which I 
took to a bull in the neighborhood, and the produce 
was a heifer-calf, which was raised because of the good 
milking-qualities of her dam ; but when she became 
a cow, instead of any of the good qualities of her dam 
as was expected, her bag and teats were more in con- 
trast (sic) with that of a sheep than of a good dairy- 
cow. I then began to investigate the cause, and found 
that the heifer was the counterpart of the dam of the 
bull, she being an ordinary cow with a small bag and 
still smaller teats, and from that time to this I have 
found that too frequently that is the case, especially 
if the bull was froni such a stock or family of light 
milkers that it was not desirable to perpetuate them. 
I remember distinctly the first pure-bred Short-Horn 
bull I ever had, that the bag of his dam was the largest 
in the hind-quarters, consequently that she gave most 
milk from the hind-teats, and that quality was trans- 
mitted to the majority of his heifers when they came 
to be cows, their bags tending largely in the hind- 
quarters. And I think, from such observations, that 

* Prosper Lucas, " De I'Heredite naturelle," vol. i., p. 255 ; as 
quoted by Sedgwick, in British and Foreign Medico- Chirurgical Review^ 
April, 1863, p. 473. 



RELATIVE INFLUENCE OP PARENTS. 231 

there can be no doubt that such is the case gener- 
ally." ' 

It is well known to the breeders of Ayrshire cattle 
that the sire has an important influence upon the form 
and functional activity of the udder ; and the position 
and development of the false teats of the bull are be- 
Keved to furnish an indication of the milking qualities 
he will be likely to transmit. 

In the large number of grade Ayrshires that I have 
bred for dairy-purposes, the udder, in most instances, 
has resembled the family type of the sire in form and 
general proportions. The males of the dairy-breeds, 
generally, are prepotent in the transmission of the 
characteristics of the females of their race. 

" It is well known, for example," says Mr. Sedg- 
wick, " that the supply of milk by cows is hereditarily 
influenced by the bulls rather than by the cows from 
which they are directly descended, and that the char- 
acter of the secretion, as regards both the quantity and 
the quality of the milk, is chiefly derived from the 
paternal grandmother, by atavic descent " (Burdach, 
" Traite de Physiologic," vol. iii., page 117 ; and Girou, 
op. cit., page 12Y); "and as we descend still lower 
in the scale, we find, for example, in the case of in- 
sects, evidence more or less decisive in favor of the 
transmission by either sex of the distinctive peculiari- 
ties of the other ; while the capability of both sexes 
in the human race to transmit disease by atavic de- 
scent is occasionally illustrated by the occurrence of 
cases in which the transmission is effected by a male 

* Country Gentleman, April, 1865, p. 236. For other similar cases, 
see Country Gentleman, IS'JS, p. 42. 



232 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

and a female branch of tlie same family, as in the 
following case, related by F. Meckel " {Lancet^ 1829 
-30, vol. i., page 792), "in which the modified in- 
fluence of sex is associated with atavism of unequal 
remoteness ; ' a man whose palate was entire, but un- 
even, as if cicatrized, had, by a perfectly healthy wife, 
seven children, of whom the four boys were well 
formed, but the three girls had hare-lip and divided 
palate. His mother's sister had also seven children, 
^NQ, sons and two daughters, of whom the former 
were all similarly deformed.' " ^ 

In the two following cases, the one of a disease 
and the other of a congenital defect of the male organs 
of generation, the female parent transmits to her off- 
spring peculiarities that she could not herself be af- 
fected with. 

Sir Henry Holland reports a case " of hydrocele 
occurring in three out of four generations in one fam- 
ily, the omission adding to the singularity of the fact 
from its depending on a female being third in the 
series, in whose son the complaint reappeared." ' 

Many cases of hereditary hypospadias (a defect of 
the male urethra) are on record. 

" In a case observed by Meckel, it appears that a 
woman, born of a family which presented many ex- 
amples of hypospadias, gave birth to two boys affected 
with the deformity." ' 

^ Brithli and Foreign 3Iedico-CMrurgical Revieii\3\x\y, 1863, p. 193. 

* £Jdi7iburgh Medical Journal, 1858-'59, p. 501 ; quoted in British 
and Foreign Medico- Chirurgical Review, July, 1861, p. 148. 

^British and Foreign Medico- Chirurgical Review^ July, 1863, p. 
ITS. 



RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF PARENTS. 233 

A case is reported " of the total absence of the 
uterus in three out of ^ve daughters in the same fam- 
ily." This is supposed to be an instance of collateral 
inheritance through the males of the 'family, as it 
could not, of course, be directly transmitted/ 

Mr. Sedgwick, on the authority of Dr. Russell, of 
Birmingham, gives the following case of hereditary 
obesity, limited to the male sex : " The first is the case 
of a very stout and flabby man, with copious deposit 
of fat, and symptoms of fatty heart; he has four 
brothers and one sister : the sister is thin, while one 
of his brothers is as large as himself, and the three 
others are larger ; his father, paternal uncle, and pa- 
ternal grandfather were large and fat men ; his moth- 
er was of medium size, and his maternal grandmoth- 
er was tall and thin. The second case is that of a 
very stout man, aged twenty years, with a very large 
amount of subcutaneous fat, and symptoms of a fatty 
heart ; he has had ten brothers and sisters, of whom 
only two brothers and two sisters are living ; the two 
brothers are even fatter and heavier than he is, while 
the two sisters are of only medium size; his father 
was, as a young man, always very fat, and other male 
relations in the family are also large-made and fat." ^ 

" A sporting-dog, the issue of a setter mother and 
a spaniel father, was coupled with a setter bitch, and 
the male offspring were spaniels, like the paternal 
grandfather, and resembled him in their hair, while 

^ British Medical Journal, October 5, 1861, p. 359 ; as quoted by 
Sedgwick, he. cit.,^. 171. 

^ British and Foreign Medico- Chirurgical Review^ July, 1863, p. 

11 



234 PKINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

the female offspring were setters, having the color of 
their mother/ 

" A family of Angora cats, of which the mother 
is white and* deaf ; the father, which hears, is white 
and black ; all the kittens which are born white are 
deaf as the mother, those which resemble the father 
are not so." ^ 

In the case of Augustin Duf oret, already referred 
to, the maKormed digits in the third generation were 
inherited by the twelve sons, while the seven daugh- 
ters were exempt, and the same sexual limitation oc- 
curred in the second generation with a single excep- 
tion.' 

Mr. Dallas,* in one of the Highland Agricultural 
Society essays, already mentioned, advances the theory 
that the male has the greatest influence on the exter- 
nal appearance of the offspring, and the female on 
the internal qualities ; and this division of influence 
he accounts for on the supposition that the seminal 
fluid of the male invests the ovum, and thus forms its 
outer envelope, while the germ itself, from which the 
internal structures are formed, is furnished by the 

^ Sedgwick, he. cit, April, 1863, p. 451, who quotes from "De la 
Generation," by Girou, p, 123. 

^ Sedgwick, loc. cit, p. 458 ; on the authority of M. Bouvyer-Des- 
mortiers. 

3 Quite a number of instances of sexuallimitation of hereditary 
characters may be found among the cases cited to illustrate other 
forms of heredity in the preceding chapters. A summary of the 
facts presented by Dr. Prosper Lucas and Mr, Sedgwick, with addi- 
tional cases, has been given by Darwin, in "Animals and Plants under 
Domestication," vol. ii., pp. 93, 94. 

^ " Transactions of the Highland Society," vol. i., p. 43. 



RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF PARENTS. 235 

female. As this physiological exposition, on which 
the theory is based, is a pure assumption, in direct 
conflict with the known facts of embryology, the essay 
may be passed without further comment. 

A modified form of this theory has been elaborated 
by Mr. Walker,^ who draws most of his illustrations 
from the human family ; and, more recently, Mr. Or- 
ton ^ has advanced the same theory, in its apphcations 
to stock-breeding. 

As a large proportion of modern writers on the 
physiology of breeding have quoted the arguments 
of Walker and Orton with approval, their theories 
have assumed an importance that is not warranted by 
their real merits. 

Mr. "Walker enunciates his first law as follows : 
"Where both parents are of the same variety, . . . 
onejparent communicates the anterior part of the head 
(and I believe the upper middle part also), the osseous 
or hony part of the face^ the forms of the organs of 
sense (the external ear, under lip, lower part of the 
nose, and eyebrows, being often modified), and the 
whole of the internal nutritive system (the contents of 
the trunk, or the thoracic and abdominal viscera, and 
consequently the form of the trunk itself, in so far as 
that depends upon its contents). The resemblance to 
that parent is, consequently, found in the forehead 
and the bony parts of the face, as the orbits, cheek- 
bones, jaws, chin, and teeth, as well as the shape of 
the organs of sense, and the tone of the voice. . . . 
The other parent communicates the posterior part of 

^ " On Intermarriage," 1839. 

2 " On the Physiology of Breeding," two lectures, 1855. 



236 PRmCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

the head (and I believe tlie lower middle part also), 
the cerebral^ situated within the shull, immediately 
ahove its junction with the hack of the necJc^ and the 
whole of the locomotive systein (the bones, ligaments, 
and muscles, or fleshy parts). The resemblance to that 
parent is, consequently, found in the back-head, the 
few more movable parts of the face, as the external 
ear, under lip, lower part of the nose, eyebrows, and 
the external forms of the body, in so far as they de- 
pend on the muscles, as well as the form of the limbs, 
even to the fingers, toes, and nails." ^ 

" It is a fact," says Mr. Walker, " established by 
my observations, that, in animals of the same variety, 
either the male or the female parent may give either 
series of organs, as above arranged — that is, either 
forehead and organs of sense, together with the vital 
and nutritive organs, or, back-head, together with the 
locomotive organs." * 

" The second law, namely, that of crossing, oper- 
ates where each parent is of a different treed, and 
when, supposing both to be of equal age and vigor, 
the male gives the back-head and locomotive organs, 
and \hQ female the face and nutritive organs." ' 

" The third law, namely, that of in-and-in breed- 
ing, operates where hoth parents are not only of the 
same variety, but of the same far)iily in its narrowest 
sense, and when they^m^Z^ gives always the lacJc-head 
and locomotive organs, and the male the face and 
nutritive organs — ^precisely the reverse of what takes 
place in crossing." * 

^ Walker on " Intermarriage," pp. 142, 143. 

8 Loc. cit, p. 146. 3 Walker, be. cit., p. 184. * Ibid., p. 204. 



RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF PARENTS. 237 

According to Mr. Orton/ " the male animal influ- 
ences especially the external, and the female the in- 
ternal, organization of the offspring. The outward 
form, general appearance, and organs of locomotion, 
are chiefly determined by the male ; the vital organs, 
size, general vigor, and endurance, by the female." ^ 

As stated by Goodale, he maintains that " the male 
parent chiefly detennines the external characters, the 
general appearance, in fact, the outward structure and 
locomotive powers of the offspring, as the framework, 
or bones and muscles, more particularly those of the 
limbs, the organs of sense, and skin ; while the female 
parent chiefly determines the internal structures and 
the general quality, mainly furnishing the vital organs, 
i. e., the heart, lungs, glands, and digestive organs, and 
giving tone and character to the vital functions of se- 
cretion, nutrition, and growth." ^ 

Mr. Spooner says : " The most probable supposi- 
tion is, that propagation is done by halves, each parent 
giving to the offspring the shape of one-half of the 
body. Thus the back, loins, hind-quarters, general 
shape, skin, and size, follow one parent ; and the fore- 
quarters, head, vital and nervous system, the other ; 
and we may go so far as to add that the former, in 
the great majority of cases, go with the male parent, 
and the latter with the female."* 

^ Not being able to refer directly to Mr. Orton's original paper, the 
statements of his opinions are quoted from the Journal of the Royal 
Agricultural Society^ vol, xvi., p. 43 ; Goodale's " Principles of Breed- 
ing," pp. TS-Vg ; and Journal of the Highland Agricultural Society^ 
ISST-'Sg, pp. 19-22. ^ Jour, of the Royal Agricul. Soc, vol. xvi., p. 43. 

3 " Principles of Breeding," p. 75. 

^ Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, vol. xx., p. 295. 



238 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

Mr. Spooner adds/ however, that " the size is gov- 
erned more by the male parent ; " while Mr. Orton is 
equally positive that the size must follow the female 
parent.^ 

It will be noticed that the advocates of the half- 
and-half theory of generation do not agree in many 
particulars as to the supposed division of parental in- 
fluence, and this in itseK may fairly be urged as an 
objection to the theory. 

When the offspring in external form resembles 
one parent, it does not follow that the internal or vital 
organization is derived from the other parent, and the 
advocates of this theory have failed to produce any 
evidence that can possibly warrant such a conclusion. 

In crossing a pure-bred male, of any of the im- 
proved meat-producing breeds, upon native or cross- 
bred females, the sire is not only prepotent in deter- 
mining: the external form and characters of the off- 
spring, but he has also a predominant influence upon 
the organs of nutrition, as is shown in the uniform 
superiority of the grade animal to its dam, in size, 
feeding quality, and early maturity. 

Instead of a limitation of the influence of each 
parent to a particular set of organs, we find the parent 
that is prepotent in the transmission of its characters 
has a controlling influence upon the internal as well 
as the external organization of the offspring. 

Physiological objections may likewise be made to 
the classification and presumed origin of the various 
organs of the body, in each of the three forms of the 
theory under consideration. 

J Loc. cit, p. 295. 2 "Principles of Breeding," p. 18. 



RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF PARENTS. 239 

In an early stage of the development of the germ, 
a blastodermic membrane is formed, from which the 
embryo is developed. This blastodermic membrane 
is soon separated into two layers, which are designated 
as the external and internal layers of the germinal or 
blastodermic membrane. "According to the most 
recent observations, the main portion of the external 
layer, sometimes called the serons layer, simply forms 
a temporary investment for the rest of the vitellns 
(yolk), and is not developed into any part of the em- 
bryon. The internal layer, called the mucons layer, 
is developed into nothing but the epithelial lining of 
the alimentary canal. There is a thickening of both 
of these layers at the line of development of the cere- 
bro-spinal system, with a furrow, which is finally in- 
closed by an elevation of the ridges and their union 
posteriorly, forming the canal for the spinal cord. As 
the spinal canal is thns developed, a new layer is 
formed by a genesis of cells from the internal surface 
of the original layer and the opposite surface of the 
internal or mucous layer. This layer of new cells 
may be termed the intermediate layer, and it is from 
this that nearly all the parts of the embryon are de- 
veloped. 

" To summarize the development of the layers just 
mentioned, we may state that the external layer is a 
temporary structure ; the internal layer is very thin, 
and is for the development of the epithelial lining of 
the alimentary canal ; and the most important struct- 
ure is a thick layer of cells developed from the oppo- 
site surfaces of the external and the internal layers, 
and situated between them, called the intermediate 



240 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

layer ; and it is from these cells that the greatest part 
of the embrjon is formed." ^ 

As there is a tendency to a subdivision of the three 
layers mentioned, some modern physiologists include 
in the external layer the npper surface of the inter- 
mediate layer, while the lower surface of the inter- 
mediate layer is included in the inner layer of the 
blastodermic membrane. 

This does not, however, involve any difference of 
opinion as to the parts of the germinal membrane that 
are developed into the different organs of the body. 
Dr. Marshall, who adopts the latter classification, says : 
" From the upper external or serous layer, also named 
the sensorial layer, are developed, along its axial por- 
tion, the cerebro-spinal nervous axis and the organs of 
the senses, and, from its lateral portions, the cuticle 
or outer skin, with its epidermic appendages, the 
feathers, bill, and claws, and, in the mammalia, the 
nails and hairs ; lastly, the sebaceous and sudoriferous 
cutaneous glands, and the Meibomian, ceruminous, 
and mammary glands. 

" From the middle layer, also called the motorio- 
sexual layer, are developed, by complicated metamor- 
phoses of its substance, the bones, the muscular sys- 
tem, the peripheral spinal nerves, the sympathetic 
nerves, the heart, blood-vessels, and lymphatic system, 
the so-called ductless glands, and the reproductive 
organs ; also, next to the external layer, the true skin, 
and, next to the internal layer, the muscular and sub- 
mucous coats of the alimentary canal. 

"Lastly, from the internal layer, also called the 

» Flint's "Physiology," IS'ZS, vol. v., p. 360. 



RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF PARENTS. 241 

mucous or intestinal layer, are developed the epithe- 
lial lining of the alimentary canal, and all its glandu- 
lar extensions, snch as the mucous, the gastric, and 
intestinal glands, the pancreas, and the liver, also the 
lungs and respiratory passages, and the urinary appa- 
ratus, including the bladder, ureters, and kidneys." ' 

From this outline of the origin of the different 
organs in the development of the embryo, it will be 
seen that the classification of organs made by Messrs. 
"Walker, Orton, and Spooner, is not in accordance with 
their true relations in the process of embryological 
development. 

As both locomotive and nutritive organs are de- 
veloped from the middle germinal layer, which is 
derived from a cell outgrowth of the external and in- 
ternal layers, it does not seem probable that either 
group of organs is produced by the exclusive influence 
of one parent. 

Many of the arguments advanced in favor of this 
theory are drawn from fancied analogies that are not 
in harmony with well-established facts. 

« It is clear," says Mr. Walker, " that the whole 
nutritive system, chiefly contained within the trunk, 
is naturally connected with the senses of taste and 
smell, which are the guides to the supply of its wants 
as to food and drink, and therefore the senses con- 
tained in the face (and consequently the observing 
faculties dependent on these senses and contained in 
the forehead) ought to accompany the nutritive system." 
And, by a similar process of reasoning, he con- 
cludes that " the back-head, containing both the organ 
» " Outlines of Physiology," p. 954. 



242 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-EEEEDING. 

of wiK and the posterior masses of the brain — the 
seats of desire or aversion hj which will is excited — 
ought to accompany the locomotive system, not mere- 
ly in the greater masses of the figure, but even in the 
muscles of the face." ^ 

It may be that this ought to be the case, but I^sTa- 
ture has, unfortunately for herseK or the theory, de- 
veloped the structures so closely associated from quite 
different portions of the blastodermic membrane of 
the embryo. 

As the peculiarities of hybrids are relied upon as 
furnishing the most conclusive evidence of the truth 
of this theory, an examination of this part of the argu- 
ment will be of particular interest. 

" The mule," says Mr. Orton, " the produce of the 
male ass and the mare, is essentially a modified ass / 
the ears are those of an ass somewhat shortened ; the 
mane is that of the ass, erect ; the tail is that of an 
ass ; the skin and color are those of an ass somewhat 
modified ; the legs are slender, and the hoofs high, 
narrow, and contracted, like those of an ass ; in fact, 
in all these respects it is an ass somewhat modified. 
The body and barrel of the mule are round and full, 
in which it differs from the ass and resembles the 
mare. The hinny ^ (or muto), on the other hand, the 
produce of the stallion and she-ass, is essentially a 
modified horse ; the ears are those of a horse some- 
what lengthened ; the mane flowing ; the tail is bushy, 
like that of a horse ; the skin is finer, like that of a 
horse; and the color varies also like the horse; the 

* Walker on " Intermarriage," pp. 143, 144. 
2 Bardeau of the French. 



RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF PARENTS. 243 

legs are stronger, and the hoofs broad and expanded, 
like those of a horse. In fact, in all these respects it 
is a horse somewhat modified. 

" The body and barrel, however, of the hinny are 
flat and narrow, in which it differs from the horse and 
resembles its mother, the ass. It is clearly evident 
that these two hybrid animals have followed the male 
parent in all his external characteristics. 

" In two respects there is, however, a striking de- 
parture from him. First, in size they both follow the 
female parent, the mnle being in all respects a larger 
and finer animal than its sire, the ass ; while the hinny 
is just the reverse, being flat and narrow. In this re- 
spect the mule is just the reverse of its sire, the ass, 
while the hinny is just the reverse of its sire, the 
horse ; while both, also, in this respect (the body and 
barrel) resemble their female parent." ^ 

Mr. Orton adds : " The mule hrays^ while the 
hinny neighs. The why and wherefore of this is a 
perfect mystery, until we come to apply the knowl- 
edge afforded us by the law I have given. The male 
gives the locomotive organs, and the muscles are 
among these ; the muscles are the organs which modu- 
late the voice of the animal ; the mule has the muscu- 
lar structures of its sire, the ass ; the hinny has the 
muscular structures of its sire, the horse ; the organs 
of voice in the former are those of its sire, the ass, 
hence it brays ; the organs of voice of the latter are 
those of its sire, the horse, hence it neighs." "^ 

' Quoted from the Journal of the Royal Agi'icultural Society, 1857- 
'59, p. 21. 

2 Journal of the Highland Agricultural Society, 1857-59, p. 22. 



24:4 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

There is a substratum of trutL. in these statements 
that, at the first glance, gives a plausibility to the 
argument in favor of this theory — which, however, 
disappears when all the facts are presented in their 
true relations. 

Without noticing the fallacies in the statement 
in regard to the resemblance of the mule to its " sire, 
the ass," it may be admitted that the ass is prepotent 
in the transmission of its characters when bred with 
the mare, and that the mule consequently presents a 
stronger resemblance to its sire than to its dam. 

According to M. Colin, who is one of the highest 
aiithorities on the comparative anatomy and physiol- 
ogy of domestic animals, the hinny resembles the ass 
more closely than it does the horse. It has a finer 
head than the mule, and in the mane and tail more 
nearly resembles the horse ; but, in general form and 
size, in peculiarities of the nostril, the withers, the 
back, the legs and feet, and other minor peculiarities, 
it presents a stronger resemblance to the dam than to 
the sire. " On the whole," says M. Colin, " in the 
produce of the two species, the ass and the horse, it is 
undoubtedly the influence of the ass that predomi- 
nates in the transmission of the external form, the 
constitution, and the disposition." ^ 

After noticing the results of the cross of the zebra 
and the horse, the ass and the zebra, and the hemione 
and the ass, M. Colin concludes as follows : " In ex- 
amining the mules of solipeds, we see that if the 
mule, properly so called, resembles the ass, its father, 

^ " Physiologie comparee des Animanx domestiques," tome ii., p. 
53'7. 



RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF PARENTS. 245 

in general form, in the head, the mane, the back, the 
tail, the legs, and the feet ; the hinny (bardeau) that, 
on the whole, differs but little from the mule, resem- 
bles the ass, its mother, in the large number of its 
points, the head and the mane excepted. If, then, it 
is true that the first (the mule) derives its form from 
its father, it is equally true that the second (the hinnj) 
derives its form from the mother, and, if the parents 
transmit their form to the anterior part of the body, 
they do the same for the posterior part. Consequent- 
ly what the father gives to the mule, the mother, with 
but slight variation, gives to the hinny. 

"In the second place, if the mule derives from 
the ass, its father, its constitution, strength, hardiness, 
and disposition, the hinny derives the same characters 
from the ass, its mother, as there is a stronger resem- 
blance of the two hybrids in these characters than 
there is even in external conformation ; and, finally, 
if the mule derives its size from the mother, why is it 
not her equal in this respect ? and, if the hinny derives 
its size from the mother, why does it exceed her in 
size ? " ^ 

Some of the advocates of the theory under review 
admit that, so far as size of the offspring is concerned, 
a preponderating influence cannot be exclusively at- 
tributed to either parent. Mr. Spooner says : " How 
often do we find that, in the by no means infrequent 
case of the union of a tall man with a short woman, 
the result in some instances is that all the children are 
tall, and in others all short ; or, sometimes, that some 
of the family are short and others tall ! Within our 

^ Colin, he. cif., p. 539. 



246 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

own knowledge, in one case where the father was tall 
and the mother short, the children, six in number, are 
all tall. In another instance, the father being short 
and the mother tall, the children, seven in number, 
are all of lofty stature. In the third instance, the 
mother being tall and the father short, the greater 
portion of the family are short." * 

The resemblance of the hinnj to the mule, noticed 
by M. Colin, has likewise been observed in this coun- 
try. Mr. B. F. Cockrell, of ^NashviUe, Tennessee, 
says : " In the year 1850 I bred a dozen jennets to a 
thorough-bred son of imported Priam. The following 
spring I had six mules foaled. In 1851 I again bred 
these same jennets to the same stallion, and had four 
mules foaled, three of which lived and attained ma- 
turity. I often asked visitors to point out the hinnies 
from the mules (there being other mules on the plan- 
tation), and in no- instance did I ever find a man that 
could distinguish them from other mules. 

" I shipped them, with forty other mules, to my 
father's cotton-plantation in Mississippi, where they 
did the same routine of duty with the other mules, 
and remained in all respects perfectly incognito as to 
color, feet, head, voice, and size, to their death." ^ 

A correspondent of The Country Gentleman, in 
reference to the hinnies bred by Mr. Cockrell, says : 
" I have seen but one hinny, to my knowledge. It 
was before a wagon, alongside of a mule, last year. I 
examined it closely, but was unable to see any structu- 
ral peculiarities to distinguish one from the other. It 

* Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society^ vol. xx., p. 295. 
2 The Cmntry Gentleman, ISTG, p. ITO. 



RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF PARENTS. 247 

was colored more like the jennet than most mules, 
but I have seen many with similar markings, and 
many more like the horse in style and finish than it 
was." ^ 

The difference in the voice of the mule and the 
himiy, that Mr. Orton urges as an important part of 
his argument, requires a passing notice. The larynx 
is the organ of voice in mammals, and modifications 
of its form give rise to the various sounds emitted by 
different species of animals. In the ass the vocal liga- 
ments are inserted in an arched cavity. " On each 
side of this cavity are two circular apertures, which 
lead to two large sacs situated behind the mucous 
membrane, between the vocal ligaments and internal 
surface of the thyroid." ^ 

The characteristic bray of the ass is produced by 
this peculiar conformation of the larynx; and the 
mule, inheriting the same structure, is endowed with 
a similar voice. As the larynx is not developed from 
the layer of the blastodermic membrane that gives 
rise to the locomotive organs, the argument of Mr. 
Orton, in regard to the peculiarities of the voice of 
the mule and the hinny, is without foundation. 

" A cross between a male wolf and a bitch," says 
Mr. Orton, "illustrates the same law, the offspring 
having a markedly wolfish aspect, skin, color, ears, 
and tail. On the other hand, a cross between the dog 
and female wolf afforded animals much more dog-like 
in aspect, slouched ears, and even pied in color. 

^ Loc. dt, p. ITO. 

2 " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. iv., p. 1492 ; 
Journal of the Highland Agricultural Society, ISS'T-'SO, p. 22. 



248 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

" If you look to the descriptions and illustrations 
of these two hybrids, you will perceive at a glance 
that the doubt arises to the mind in the case of the 
first, ' What genus of wolf is this \ ' whereas, in the 
case of the second, ' What a curious mongrel dog / ' " ' 

If this statement of the relative influence of the 
parents, in the case of a cross between the wolf and 
the dog, could be made to agree with known facts, it 
would furnish a very strong argument in favor of the 
half-and-haK theory. 

Buffon, however, mentions "the very conclusive 
case of a she-wolf which had two cubs, a male and 
a female, to a setter-dog. The male resembled the 
father in external appearance, except that the ears 
were pointed, and the tail like that of the wolf ; the 
female resembled the mother, and had all her charac- 
teristics, with the exception of the tail, which was 
that of the dog." The same author informs us that 
" the produce of a dog and a she- wolf sometimes bark 
and sometimes howl ; and the produce of a bitch-fox 
and a dog, according to Burdach, barked like a dog, 
though somewhat hoarsely, and howled like a woK 
when it was hurt. A similar remark has been made 
by aU who have attended to cross-breeding in birds ; 
the hybrid of the goldfinch and the canary has the 
song of the goldfinch, mingled with occasional notes 
of the canary, which seem perpetually about to gain 
the predominance." "^ 

On the whole, it must be admitted that the evi- 

^ Journal of the Boyal Agricultural Society, vol. xvi., p. 44 ; 
Goodale's " Principles of Breeding," p. 78. 

2 Journal of the Highland Agricultural Society, 1857-'o9, p. 22. 



RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF PARENTS. 249 

dence relating to hybrids tends to disprove the theory 
under consideration. 

If the male furnishes the external characters, the 
color of the offspring should, as a rule, follow that of 
the sire. Mules are, however, varied in color; the 
white, the gray, the iron-gray, the black, the dun- 
colored, the spotted, and the cream-colored, are of 
common occurrence.^ 

"A cow of the Swiss race, having a white skin, 
spotted with red, is mentioned by M. Girou as having 
produced five calves, only one of which, a female, re- 
sembled the bull, and four males which were like 
their mother, both in the ground-color of the skin and 
the distribution of the spots. 

" Instances of this nature have been observed by 
every one in possession of a herd of cattle ; it is never 
expected that the produce should always resemble the 
bull in color ; even though his color may predominate 
in a herd, sufficient variety never fails to appear. 
Black-and-white kittens are every day produced from 
cats one of which is wholly black and the other 
wholly white. A black buck and a white doe have 
produced at one time a black-and-white fawn, and, at 
another time, one entirely black, except a spot above 
the hoof.'"' 

The white feet and face of the celebrated horse 
Dexter are characteristic of his dam and grandam, 
who transmitted the same marks, with great uniform- 
ity, to their offspring.' 

1 See " The Mule," by Riley, pp. 22, 40. 

' Journal of the Highland Agricultural Society^ ISS'T-'SO, p. 23. 

3 National Live-Stock Journal^ 1876, p. SY. 



250 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

Mr. Eoberts reports the case of a horse with two 
curbs. The sire was free from defects ; but a sister 
in the same stable had two curbs ; their dam had two 
curbs, and a foal of hers by another horse had also 
two curbs, showing conclusively that the defect was 
transmitted by the dam.' 

The statements of Mr. Walker have been so often 
quoted, and his theory so generally accepted, that we 
must be permitted to quote some of his cases and his 
inferences from them : " Of the power of the horse 
to communicate, in a cross, his skeleton, and therefore 
his locomotive system generally, or, in other words, 
his general shape and character, Mr. Knight gives an 
interesting example." ^ 

Then follows Mr. Knight's case : " I have obtained 
offspring," he says, " from l^orwegian pony mares 
and the London dray-horse, of which the legs a/re pre- 
ternatiirally short, and the shoulders and body preter- 
naturally deep, and the animal of course preternatural- 
ly strong. . . . The offspring of my ISTorwegian mares, 
as always happens in similar cases, had legs as short as 
their mothers at birth ; but the male parent, the dray- 
horse, caused their legs to grow greatly stronger, and 
their joints and bodies generally much larger, although 
the legs remained short." 

" Thus in equine crosses," says Mr. Walker, in the 
paragraph immediately following the quotation from 
Mr. Knight, " the male gives the locomotive system, 
the female the vital one." 

A theory founded on such inferences, from such 

» " The Horse," by Youatt, p. 35. 
f 2 "Walker on " Intermarriage," p. 187. 



RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF PAEENTS. 251 

facts, would hardly seem to require further notice, 
but we must not overlook some of its applications 
that are of practical interest. "A and B," says Mr. 
Walker, " who are more or less perfectly crossed, may 
have very different vital and locomotive systems : of 
their immediate progeny, C may have the vital system 
of A and the locomotive system of B ; and D may, 
on the contrary, have the locomotive system of A and 
the vita] system of B (for, in a feeble or imperfect 
cross, such variation may occur) ; and, of the progeny 
of these last, E may have from C the vital system of 
A, and from D the locomotive system of A ; and F 
may have from C the locomotive system of B, and 
from D the vital system of B. Thus A and B may 
be reformed in the third generation." ^ 

The statement, in its simplest form, is that the 
grandchildren E and F are identical with the grand- 
parents A and B in organization, while the parents C 
and D are each one-half A and one-half B. 

The absurdity of this proposition will be readily 
seen in its application to a particular case. 

According to the theory a pure Devon bull, bred 
to a pure Short-Horn cow, may produce a bull-calf 
with the external organization of the Devon and the 
internal organization of the Short-Horn ; the same 
pair might also produce a heifer-calf with the external 
organization of the Short-Horn and the internal or- 
ganization of the Devon. "With this division of the 
oi'ganization it follows that, if the two cross-bred ani- 
mals are bred together, the offspring in one instance 

' Walker, loc. dt., p. 199. A similar statement in regard to the 
cross of the Arab horse may be found in the same work, p. 183. 



252 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

may intierit the external Short-Horn characters of one 
parent and the internal Short Horn characters of the 
other parent, and thus be a pure Short-Horn ; and, in 
another instance, the external charactei'S of the Devon 
may be inherited from one parent and the internal 
characters of the Devon from the other parent, and 
thus be a pure Devon. In other words, a pnre Devon 
and a pnre Short-Horn may, according to the theory, 
be produced from the same pair of cross-bred animals, 
which is not only absurd, but in direct conflict with 
all the known facts in cross-breeding. If the external 
characteristics are represented by the numerator of a 
fraction and the internal characteristics are represent- 
ed by the denominator, the inherited characters of the 
offspring, according to Mr. "Walker, may be clearly 
represented in the following diagram, in which D 
stands for Devon and S for Short-Horn. 



Original Parents. ' First Produce 




Mr. Orton, who was apparently aware of the in- 
consistency involved in the application of this theory 
to extreme cases, makes an admission that is fatal to 
the theory he advocates. He says : " I do not mean 
to imply or state that in all cases the law operates 
with the precision I have above stated, for there are 
certain controlling influences which confuse and "mod- 



RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF PARENTS. 253 

ify^ and in some cases almost seem to set aside the law. 
I do not mean it to be inferred that either parent 
gives either set of organs uninfluenced by the other 
parent, but merely that the leading characteristics and 
qualities of both sets of organs are due to the male on 
the one side and the female on the other, the opposite 
parent modifying them only." ^ 

It must be obvious, from the facts abeady present- 
ed, that the half-and-half theory of generation cannot 
be true.'' 

The characteristics of one parent may sometimes 
be transposed, in some unaccountable manner, through 
the supplementary influence of the other parent, as in 
the following remarkable case reported to me by Dr. 
H. B. Shank, of Lansing, Michigan : A white cat 
with a small black patch, consisting of a few hairs, on 
her forehead, had kittens by a tomcat that was en- 
tirely black. The kittens were all black, with the 
exception of a small patch on the forehead, which 
was white. The white patch on the kittens occupied 
the same position, and it was also of the same size, as 
the black patch on the forehead of the mother. 

The relative influence of parents upon their off- 
spring evidently depends upon conditions that cannot 
in all cases be determined. When the characteristics 
of one parent have been fixed by the inheritance of 
the same peculiarities for many generations, it will 
undoubtedly prove to be prepotent in the transmission 

* Journal of the Highland Agricultural Society, 1857-59, p. 25. 

^ Darwin's " Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. ii., pp. 
88, 432 ; " Heredity," by Ribot, p. 166 ; Journal of the Highland Agri- 
cultural Society, 1857-59, p. 21. 



254 PKINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

of its characters if tlie other parent has a less stable 
organization, but this will not prevent the inheritance 
of the peculiarities of both parents that are not in- 
cluded in the dominant characteristics. 

The cases of cross-heredity, or the transmission by 
one sex of the peculiarities of the other, in connection 
with cases like the last above cited, are, however, suffi- 
cient to show that there are laws governing the trans- 
mission of characters that, in the present state of 
knowledge, we are unable to define. 



CHAPTEE XII. 

mFLTJENCE OF A PEEYIOIJS IMPEEGNATION". 

The influence of the male in the process of pro- 
creation is not limited to his immediate offspring, but 
extends also, through the female that he has impreg- 
nated, to her offspring by another male. 

Paradoxical as this statement may appear, there 
are many well-authenticated cases on record that can- 
not be satisfactorily explained on any other hypothesis. 

In 1815 a chestnut mare, seven-eighths Arabian, 
belonging to the Earl of Morton, was covered by a 
quagga (a species of zebra) : the hybrid produce re- 
sembled the sire in color and in many peculiarities of 
form. 

" In 1817, 1818, and 1821, the same mare was 
covered by a very fine black Arabian horse, and pro- 
duced successively three foals, and, although she had 
not seen the quagga since 1816, they all bore his 
curious and unequivocal markings." * 

^ This remarkable case was first published in the " Philosophical 
Transactions," 1821, p. 20. It has been repeatedly cited by writers on 
breeding, some of whom have apparently been misled by making quo- 
tations at second hand. A writer in the Farmer's Magazme mentions 
the case of " a thorough-bred mare belonging to Sir Gore Ousely," that 
was covered by a zebra, and, on the authority of Mr. Blane, states that 
" Lord Morton had a mare covered by a quagga — a kind of large ass," 



256 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

It is stated, on the authority of Mr. William Good- 
win, veterinary snrgeon to her Majesty, that " several 
of the mares in that establishment" (royal stnd at 
Hampton Court) '' had foals in one year, which were 
by Actseon, but which presented exactly the marks of 
the horse Colonel, a white hind-fetlock, for instance, 
and a white mark or stripe on the face ; and Actseon 
was perfectly free from white. The mares had all 
'bred from Colonel the previous yearP ' 

" A colt, the property of the Earl of Suffield, got 
by Laurel, so resembled another horse (Camel) that it 
was whispered, nay, even asserted, at I^ewmarket, that 
he must have been got by Camel. It was ascertained, 
however, that the only relation which the colt bore to 
Camel was, that the latter had served his mother the 
previous season." ^ 

Mr. George T. Allman, of Tennessee, gives the 
following case, that came under his own observation : 
" I bred a bay mare, black points, to Watson, a son of 
Lexington, who is a golden chestnut, large star, both 

the results in each case being the same. As the mare belonging to 
Lord Morton, that was covered by a quagga, was afterward sent to Sir 
Gore Ousely, and produced colts by a black Arabian horse, the two 
cases are readily resolved into one. {See Darwin's " Animals and Plants 
under Domestication," vol. i., p. 484 ; Farmer^s Magazine^ vol. xxxv., p. 
130 ; Walker on " Intermarriage," p. 244 ; " Principles of Breeding," 
by Goodale, p. 46; British and Foreign Medico- Chirurgical Revieio^ 
July, 1863, p. 183.) 

1 Farmer's Magazine, vol. xxxv., p. 180. See also *' Principles of 
Breeding," by Goodale, p. 4*7 ; Journal of the Highland Agricultural 
Society, ISSV-'oQ, p. 26. 

2 Journal of the Highland Agricultural Society, 1857-59, p. 26. 
See also " Principles of Breeding," by Goodale, p. 47 ; Farmer's Maga- 
zine, vol. xxxv., p. 130. 



INFLUENCE OF A PREVIOUS IMPEEGNATION. 257 

hind and near front ankles white. After dropping 
her foal to Watson, I bred the same mare to my sad- 
dle-stallion, Prince Pulaski, a very dark chestnut, no 
white save a very small star ; this produce was a fac 
sionile of Watson in every particulars^ 

" Alexander Mon-ison, Esq., of Bognie, had a fine 
Clydesdale mare which, in 1843, was served by a 
Spanish ass and produced a mule. She afterward had 
a colt by a horse, which bore a very marked likeness 
to a mule — seen at a distance, every one set it down 
at once as a mule. The ears are nine and a haK 
inches long, the girth not quite six feet, and stands 
above sixteen hands high. The hoofs are so long and 
narrow that there is a difficulty in shoeing them, and 
the tail is thin and scanty. He is a beast of indomi- 
table energy and durabihty, and is highly prized by 
his owner." ^ 

A similar case is recorded by Dr. Burgess, of Ded- 
ham, Massachusetts, who says, " From a mare which 
had once been served by a jack, I have seen a colt so 
long-eared, sharp-backed, and rat-tailed, that I stopped 
a second time to see if he were not a mule." ' 

Dr. H. B. Shank, of Lansing, Michigan, informs 
me that a mare belonging to himseK having pro- 
duced a mule, was afterward bred to a Morgan stall- 
ion with remarkably fine ears; the ears of the colt 
were large and coarse, presenting a close resemblance 
to those of a mule. A second colt produced by the 

^ Rural Sun, as quoted in National Live-Stock Journal, June, ISYY, 
p. 245. 

2 "Principles of Breeding," by Goodale, p. 48. 
^ Country Gentleman, 1870, p. 426. 
12 



258 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

mare to the same stallion had the head and ears of its 
sire. 

A repetition of the procreative function was appar- 
ently necessary, on the part of the stallion, to over- 
come the transmitted influence of the jack remaining 
from a former impregnation. Similar cases have fre- 
quently been observed by persons engaged in mule- 
breeding. 

" A pure Aberdeenshire heifer was served with a 
pure Teeswater bull, by which she had a first-cross 
calf. The following season the same cow was served 
with a pure Aberdeenshire bull ; the produce was a 
cross-csHiy which, when two years old, had very long 
horns, the parents being both polled. 

" Again, a pure Aberdeenshire cow was served, in 
1845, with a cross-bull — ^that is to say, an animal pro- 
duced between a first-cross cow and a pure Teeswater 
bull. To this bull she had a cross-calf, l^ext season 
she was served with a pure Ayrshire [Aberdeenshire?] 
bull ; the produce was quite a cross in shajDc and color." ' 

Mr. Shaw, of Leochel-Cushnie, "put six pure- 
horned and black-faced sheep to a white-faced horn- 
less Leicester ram, and others of his flock to a dun- 
faced Down ram. The produce were crosses between 
the two. In the following year they were put to a 
ram of their own breed, also pure. All the lambs 
were hornless and had brown faces. Another year he 
again put them to a pure-bred horned and black-faced 
ram. There was a smaller proportion this year im- 
pure ; but two of the produce were polled, one dun- 

' Quoted from Dr. Harvey's paper on " Cross-Breeding," in the 
Journal of the Highland Agricultural Society^ 1857-'59, p. 26. 



INFLUENCE OF A PREVIOUS IMPREGNATION. 259 

faced, with very small horns, and three were white- 
faced — showing the partial influence of the cross even 
to the third year." ' 

" A small flock of ewes belonging to Dr. W. Wells, 
in the island of Grenada, were served by a ram pro- 
cured for the purpose — the ewes were all wliite and 
woolly; the ram was quite diflerent — of a chocolate 
color, and hairy, like a goat. The progeny were of 
course crosses, but bore a strong resemblance to the 
male parent. The next season Dr. Wells obtained a 
ram of precisely the same breed as the ewes, but the 
progeny showed distinct marks of resemblance to the 
former ram in color and covering. 

" The same thing occurred on neighboring estates 
under like circumstances." * 

Mr. Darwin cites the following case from the 
" Philosophical Transactions," 1821 : " Mr. Giles put 
a sow of Lord Western's black-and-white Essex breed 
to a wild-boar of a deep chestnut-color, and the ' pigs 
produced partook in appearance of both boar and sow, 
but in some the chestnut-color of the boar strongly 
prevailed.' After the boar had long been dead the 
sow was put to a boar of her own black-and-white 
breed — a kind which is well known to breed very 
true, and never to show any chestnut-color — yet from 
this union the sow produced some young pigs which 
were plainly marked with the same chestnut-tint as in 
the first litter." ' 

F. Sherman, of Ash Grove Farm, Tairfax County, 

* Mirmer*s Magazine^ vol. xxxv., p. 130. 

' " Principles of Breeding," by Goodale, p. 49. 

* "Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. i., p. 485. 



260 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BPvEEDING. 

Yirginia, relates his experience as follows : " Three 
years ago one of my Essex gilts was served by a little 
sandy ' scrub ' boar that slipped through the fence from 
the road-side. . . . The result was a litter of four pigs, 
two pure black, the others sandy, with black spots. 
In due time she was again served by one of my Essex 
boars. Two pigs of the resulting litter were again 
sandy, with black spots. ... To give this instance its 
just weight as evidence on the point in question, it is 
proper to state that the sow, and the boar by which 
she was served the second time, were pedigree ani- 
mals of undoubted purity and excellent descent ; that 
no pigs except thorough-bred Essex are kept on the 
farm for any purpose, and that sows brought here for 
service by boars are not allowed to run with my ani- 
mals. After getting one litter of haK-bloods, thorough 
precautions were taken to prevent a repetition of the 
mishap." ^ 

Two similar cases have come under my own ob- 
servation, under circumstances that do not admit of 
doubt as to the parentage of the offspring that in- 
herited a stain through a previous impregnation of 
their dam. Several years ago a Chester white sow, 
belonging to the Michigan State Agricultural College, 
had a litter of cross-bred pigs by an Essex boar. The 
pigs were all more or less spotted with black, but in 
several of them the white predominated. 

The next season the same sow had pigs by a pure 
Suffolk boar, but they all had black spots, and some 
of them were more than one-half black. One remark- 
able feature of this case was the peculiar distribution 

^ Country Oentleman^ ISTV, p. 462. 



INFLUENCE OF A PREVIOUS IMPREGNATION. 261 

of the color in several instances. In some the front 
half of the body was white and the back half of the 
body black, while in others the colors were reversed? 
the front half of the body being black and the back 
half white. The line of demarkation between the 
black and the white was so regular and well-defined 
that, if it had been possible to divide the two animals 
transversely on the line between the white and the 
black, and transpose the parts before putting together 
again, a purely white pig and a purely black pig might 
have been made from the two that were half black 
and haK white. 

It is worthy of notice in this connection that E. 
"W. Cottrell, in speaking of a cross of the Suffolk and 
Essex swine says : " One peculiar feature with the 
color of this cross is, that invariably the black is in 
excess upon the hind-part of the animal, while the 
white predominates upon its fore-parts. I have seen 
them one half pure black and the other half pure 
white, with the dividing line where the colors meet 
forming a circle around the body at the middle." ^ 

In July, 1877, in company with my friend Dr. H. 
B. Shank, of Lansing, Michigan, I visited the farm 
of Mr. A. ]^. Gillett, in the town of Delta, Ingham 
Count}^, where we saw a litter of pigs out of a pure 
Berkshire sow, and got by a pure Berkshire boar. 

More than one-half of the pigs were apparently 
Poland-China in the form of the head, and their 
bodies were spotted with sandy-white. We were in- 
formed by Mr. Gillett that the preceding year the 

^Michigan Farmer^ as quoted in William Smith's "Catalogue of 
Breeding Swine," p. 32. 



262 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

dam of these pigs had produced a litter of pigs, by a 
Poland-China boar, that were marked in the same 
manner with sandy-white spots. The sow was bred 
under my direction, at the Michigan Agricultural 
College, three years ago, and the stock from which 
she was descended had not shown any variations from 
the pure Berkshire type. 

Mr. George T. Allman, of Tennessee, in the paper 
noticed below, says : " I bought a trio of l^eapolitan 
hogs, a boar and two sows ; I first bred a very fine, 
pure-bred Berkshire sow to the ]^eapolitan boar ; after 
farrowing, I bred her to Toronto Chief, a Berkshire 
boar, bred by Bush Brothers, Clark County, Kentucky 
(from an imported pair), and every time the sow far- 
rowed, up to her death, she produced pigs with little 
or no hair, like the Neapolitan." ^ 

Mr. Darwin, on the authority of Dr. Bowerbank, 
gives the following striking case : " A black, hairless, 
Barbary bitch, was first impregnated by a mongrel 
spaniel, with long brown hair, and she produced five 
puppies, three of which were hairless and two covered 
with short brown hair. The next time she was put 
to a full black, hairless, Barbary dog; but the mis- 
chief had been implanted in the mother, and again 
about half the litter looked like pure Barbarys, and 
the other half like the short-haired progeny of the 
first father." "" 

The following case is given by Mr. George T. All- 
man, of Tennessee : '' I bought at ' Woodburn,' Ken- 
tucky, the shepherd-dog York, from the pair the late 

' Zoc. «7., p. 245. 

^ " Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. i., p. iii. 



INFLUENCE OF A PREVIOUS IMPREGNATION. 263 

B. A. Alexander imported. (York was got by the 
famous Spring.) At the same time I bought a bitch, 
Fannie (Scotch collie), first produce of the imported 
pair owned by R. A. Alexander. Fannie and York 
were the only dogs on the farm, and are both still 
living. Fannie came in heat three different times, 
was put in a stall and secured from any intrusion, but 
she would not allow York to serve her. The third 
time she came in heat a young man, who was out 
hunting near my place with a liver-and-white colored 
pointer, suggested that I let his dog into the kennel. 
I did so, and he served Fannie, and afterward the 
shepherd-dog York did also. Half of the litter of 
pups were colored precisely as the pointer, and the 
remainder were about equally divided in color, part 
taking after York and part after Fannie. Since then 
Fannie has been coupled only with pure shepherd- 
dogs, yet every litter of pups has from one to two 
mscrk^di precisely like the pointer that first served her." ^ 

The same paper contains the two following cases, 
given by G. A. Baxter, M. D., of Chattanooga, Geor- 
gia: "Colonel L , of Chattanooga, had a white 

English bull-bitch, which by chance took a dog of 
different species. Though he ever afterward tried to 
preserve the white breed pure from her, she continued 
until her death, with every litter, to bear one or two 
yellow pups. Some of the pups I have seen myself, 
and he yet ovvOis one in Chattanooga." 

"Mr. C , of Chattanooga, has a small-sized, 

bluish-tinted shepherd, of a peculiar breed, and im- 

^ Rural Sun, as quoted in National Live-Stoch Journal, 1877, p. 
245. 



264 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

ported, I think, having very straight hair. Three 
years ago this bitch was bred by him to another shep- 
herd of a different species — a large, shaggy-haired 
breed. I saw her last litter of pups, after she had 
been confined during the whole period of heat with a 
dog of her own species, and, without knowing the 
fact of her having been so bred, reroarked upon the 
singular difference in size, shape, and appearance, of 
two of the litter from the remainder — they being half 
as large again, and seemingly of another breed entire- 
ly from her or the father. I was told then of the 
above-mentioned facts, which explained conclusively 
the result, and I think logically and truly." ^ 

Prof. Agassiz states that he had " experimented 
with a ^Newfoundland bitch, by coupling her with a 
water-dog, and the progeny were partly water-dog, 
partly l^ewfoundland, and the remainder a mixture 
of both. Future connections of the same bitch with 
a greyhound produced a similar litter, with hardly a 
trace of the greyhound. He had bred rabbits with 
the laws established by this experiment, and had at 
last so impregnated a white rabbit with the gray rab- 
bit that connection of this white rabbit with a black 
male invariably produced gray." ^ 

A celebrated breeder of Short-Horns, of my ac- 
quaintance, bred the females of a light-colored family 
to a red bull, and afterward to a bull of their own 
family ; and he succeeded, in this manner, in produc- 
ing the desired shades of color in the offspring of the 
light-colored females. 

^ National Live-Stock Jowmal, 18Y7, p. 245. 

s " Agricultural Report of Massachusetts," 1863, p. SY. 



INFLUENCE OF A PREVIOUS IMPEEGNATION. 265 

The same influence has been observed in the hu- 
man family. " A woman may have, b j a second hus- 
band, children who resemble a former husband, and 
this is particularly well marked in certain instances 
by the color of the hair and eyes. 

"A white woman, who has had children by a 
negro, may subsequently bear children to a white 
man, these children presenting some of the unmis- 
takable peculiarities of the negro race." ^ 

Several theories have been advanced to. explain 
the manner in which this peculiar influence has been 
transmitted. 

As the first cases that attracted the attention of 
physiologists were observed among mammals, it was 
supposed that the mother was impressed with the 
paternal characteristics of the foetus during its intra- 
uterine existence. 

In his remarks on this subject, Dr. Cai-penter 
says : " Some of these cases appear referable to the 
strong mental impression left by the first male parent 
upon the female ; but there are others which seem to 
render it more likely that the blood of the female has 
imbibed from that of the foetus, through the placental 
circulation, some of the attributes which the latter has 

* " Physiology of Man," by Flint, vol. v., p. 347. See also " Human 
Physiology," by Carpenter, p. 970 ; " Cyclopsedia of Anatomy and 
Physiology," vol. iv., pp. 1341-1365 ; Journal of the Royal Agricultv^ 
ral Society y vol. xvi., p. 23 ; British and Foreign Medico- Chirurgical 
Jievieio, July, 1863, p. 183. Additional references are made by Dar- 
win to cases of this kind of influence that I have not an opportunity to 
consult, as follows : Broun, in his " Geschichte du Natur," 1843, B. 11, 
S. 127; and Martin's "History of the Dog," 1845, p. 104; "Animals 
and Plants under Domestication," vol, i., p. 485, note. 



266 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

derived from its male parent, and that tlie female may 
communicate these, with those proper to herself, to the 
subsequent offspring of a different male parentage." ^ 

Mr. James McGillivray, a veterinary surgeon of 
Huntly, presents essentially the same theory, as he 
believes that, when a female of any pure breed has 
been impregnated by a male of another breed, she be- 
comes a cross, " the purity of her blood being lost in 
consequence of her connection with the foreign ani- 
mal.'"' 

Dr. Harvey, who had advocated the same theory, 
afterward observes : " Since then I have learned that 
many among the agricultural body in this district are 
familiar, to a degree that is annoying to them, with 
the facts there adduced in illustration of it — ^finding 
that after breeding crosses their cows, though served 
with bulls of their own breed, yield crosses still, or 
rather mongrels ; that they were already impressed 
with the idea of contamination of blood as the cause 
of the phenomenon ; that the doctrine so intuitively 
commended itseK to their minds, as soon as stated, 
that they fancied they were told nothing but what 
they knew before." ^ 

If the influence of the male upon the offspring of 
the same mother by another male were limited to the 
class of mammals, this theory might be accepted as 
a plausible explanation of the cases that have been 
presented ; but there are instances in which a similar 

' " Human Physiology," p. 970. 
^ " Principles of Breeding," p. 52. 

* Edinburgh Journal of Medical Science^ 1849, as quoted by Goodale, 
he. cit,f p. 53. 



INFLUENCE OF A PREVIOUS IMPREGNATION. 267 

influence has been observed in fowls — where the egg 
is separated from the mother before the embryo is 
developed — that cannot have been produced by a con- 
tamination of the blood of the mother by that of the 
embryo. But another theory that has been advanced 
to explain the manner in which this influence is trans- 
mitted in mammals must be noticed. 

Prof. James Law, after mentioning some of the 
theories that had been advanced to explain the phe- 
nomena under discussion, says ; " But a simpler and 
more satisfactory explanation may be found. It is a 
well-known pathological fact that adjacent cells tend 
to ingraft their plastic or formative powers upon each 
other. I prick my skin with a needle. Immediately 
the injured cells and nuclei undergo a rapid increase 
in size and numbers, but the effect does not end there ; 
those adjacent take on a similar action, and the extent 
of the resulting inflammation is only limited by that 
of the injury and the susceptibility of the parts. 
Again, in placing a slice of epidermis in the middle 
of a raw sore we inoculate the cells of the adjoining 
granulations, and empower them to develop epidermic 
structure. How, then, can we avoid the conclusion 
that the impregnated ovum impresses its own charac- 
ters on the mass of the decidua, and, through this, on 
the maternal placenta, and that this in turn impresses 
its characters on the decidua and embryo of the next 
succeeding generation ? " * 

This theory is certainly an ingenious one, but it 
does not furnish a satisfactory explanation of all of 

^ " Reports and Papers of the American Public Health Association," 
vol. ii., p. 253. 



2QS PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

the observed cases of this peculiar influence ; and it 
also fails to take into account certain physiological 
facts that are difficult to reconcile with it. It is well 
known that the placenta and decidua are temporary 
organs that disappear at the time of parturition, and 
that even the mucous membrane itself is removed and 
replaced with new tissue. 

Dr. Dalton says : " Another very remarkable phe- 
nomenon connected with pregnancy and parturition 
is the appearance in the uterus of a new onucous mem- 
hrane, growing underneath the old, and ready to take 
the place of the latter after its discharge. If the in- 
ternal surface of the body of the uterus be examined 
immediately after parturition, it will be seen that at 
the spot where the placenta was attached every trace 
of mucous membrane has disappeared. 

" The muscular fibres of the uterus are here per- 
fectly exposed and bare, while the mouths of the 
ruptured uterine sinus are also visible, with their thin, 
ragged edges hanging into the cavity of the uterus, 
and their orifices plugged with more or less abundant 
bloody coagula. Over the rest of the uterine surface 
the decidua vera has also disappeared. Here, how- 
ever, notwithstanding the loss of the original mucous 
membrane, the muscular fibres are not perfectly bare, 
but are covered with a thin, semitransparent film, of 
a whitish color and soft consistency. 

" This film is an imperfect mucous membrane, of 
a new formation, which begins to be produced under- 
neath the old decidua vera as early as the beginning 
of the eighth month." ^ 

1 "Human Physiology," pp. 621, 622. 



INFLUENCE OP A PHEVIOUS IMPREGNATION. 269 

" At birth," says Dr. Marshall, " the embryonal 
vascular portion of these membranes, whether it be a 
diffused, cotyledonous, zonular, or discoidal placenta, 
is always detached. In the case of the zonular and 
discoidal forms of the placenta, where a true decidua 
is developed, a ^art of the maternal tissues is also 
separated at the same time. 

" Where there is no decidua, as in the diffuse and 
cotyledonous forms, the foetal viUi are merely detached 
from the surfaces or recesses into which they fit. In 
the latter cases parts of the maternal tissues, especially 
of the veins and venous lacunae, come away." ^ 

It does not seem probable that an impression re- 
ceived by these temporary structures should be trans- 
mitted, through their influence, to subsequent impreg- 
nations. 

The numerous instances of the influence of a previ- 
ous impregnation upon offspring by another male that 
have been observed in fowls, to which we now direct 
our attention, must, however, be fatal to this theory, 
as well as that of blood contamination. 

Mr. W. H. Smith, of Lexington, Kentucky, m^ke& 
the following statement : " On or about the first day 
of February, 18Y3, I loaned a prime Dark Brahma 
cock, that was a good, vigorous bird, to Mr. James 
Fought, of this city. He put him with a lot of Light 
Brahma hens, with which a Houdan cock had been 
running previously. The hens laid, set, hatched, and 

^ " Outlines of Physiology," p. 960. See also " Text-Book of Human 
Physiology," by Flint, p. 943 ; Flint's " Physiology of Man," vol. v., 
pp. 376, 454 ; " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. v., p. 
659 ; Carpenter's " Human Physiology," p. 980. 



270 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

raised their chicks, laid and hatclied again, and the 
second litter of chicks had the Houdan marks. There 
was no Hondan blood in the Light Brahma hens, 
neither was there any other cock with the hens from 
the time he got the Dark Brahma cock." ^ 

Mr. A. W. Frizzell, of Baltimore County, Mary- 
land, makes the following statement : " I once pur- 
chased a trio of pnre-bred Dark Brahma fowls from a 
breeder of no small note, and a trustworthy man (I 
speak from experience, for I was once employed by 
this gentleman, and do know him to be trustworthy), 
which fowls had taken the first premium at the Car- 
roll County (Kentucky) Fair in 1871. I brought those 
fowls home, and in the yard was also a Light Brahma 
cock, which I did not dispose of for some time, and 
in the mean time he was mating with these dark hens ; 
any effects of this I thought would soon run out. 
After a while I disposed of the light cock, and kept 
none but the dark one, or had none nearer than a 
mile. ^Nevertheless, three years afterward I see those 
light, or half-light, checks coming from those two 
hens.'"' 

" A Mr. Payne, in England, had two Spanish pul- 
lets running with both a Spanish and Cochin cock. 
After they began to lay the Cochin was removed, and 
six weeks after the eggs were saved and set ; but the 
chickens were feather-legged, in all other points re- 
sembling the Spanish. 

" On another occasion the same gentleman allowed 

* The Poultry World^ as quoted in The Country GerUlemarif IS^S, 
p. 4*75. 

^ The Country Gentleman^ ISYY, p. 151. 



INFLUENCE OF A PKEYIOUS IMPREGNATION. 271 

a Black-red game-hen, wMcli laid while with chickens, 
to run a few hours with a Brown-red cock, and nine 
eggs produced chickens, which all resembled the fa- 
ther, or Brown-red. 

"Another English gentleman, when residing in 
Canada, sold his Brahma cock and one hen, allowing 
the hen left to run afterward with a Spangled Ham- 
burg which had five hens of his own. Every egg 
laid for ten days produced a pure Brahma chick, that 
laid on the eleventh day was a haK-breed. 

" In America, a Mr. "Woodward bought in March 
some Spanish pullets which had been running all the 
winter with a native cock, and, though no eggs were 
set till two months after purchase, all the chicks even 
then showed the native points in a high degree. 

"Another gentleman breeding Games, finding a 
neighbor's feather-legged Bantam cock come over his 
fence, penned his fowls in securely, and saved no eggs 
for a month after ; but several chicks still had feath- 
ered legs, though with no other sign of the cross." * 

Mr. E. W. Barnes, of Plympton, " allowed a 
neighbor's Brown Leghorn cock to pass three days 
among his pen of eight one-year-old Light Brahma 
pullets, ^ for experiment's sake,' he said. The Brown 
Leghorn cock was removed, and he has never once 
had anything on his premises since but the Light 
Brahmas, of both sexes, ' pure.' 

" From the eggs set within a week after the Brown 
Leghorn cock was sent home a third of the chicks, 
when hatched, came brown, speckled -brown, or 
patched with brown, that same summer. 

1 " The Illustrated Book of Poultry," by Wright, pp. 129, 130. 



272 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

" Out of the eight hens he saved four (which were 
alive a year ago), and last season — two years after the 
Brown Leghorn cock was dead— more than one-quarter 
of Mr. Barnes's chicks, bred from the old Light Brah- 
ma hens with a Light Brahma cock only since, came 
spotted, speckled, and splashed with 'brown feathers." ^ 

Mr. Charles H. Edmonds, of Melrose, " allowed a 
Sebright cock to run for a few weeks " with his Light 
Brahma fowls. " In the fall his Light Brahma chicks 
were marked with distinct Golden Sebright feathers, 
and for two years succeeding this marking showed 
itself on scores of his chicks, from this very flock of 
Light Brahmas, when the Sebright cock had been gone 
from his premises over two seasons." ^ 

In discussing this class of cases, Mr. "Wright re- 
marks : " But the fact remains — ^proved beyond the 
possibility of doubt — that again and again hens of dif- 
ferent breeds, and female animals of various kinds, 
after the birth of half-bred offspring, have ever after- 
ward manifested a plainly-evident tendency to pro- 
duce offspring bearing more or less strong traces of 
the same characters. This tendency greatly varies, 
and cannot therefore be calculated ; but it exists, and 
tends to show that a given chick may, in a certain 
mythical sense, have two fathers, or rather that the 
progeny of one bird is in some mysterious way modi- 
fied by the previous union with another. 

" The most probable explanation is, that as habit 
is the developed tendency to do again what has al- 
ready been done, so the female reproductive system, 

1 The Poultry World, October, 18'77, p. 326. 
» Ibid., p. 327. 



INFLUENCE OE A PREVIOUS IMPKEGNATION. 273 

having once given birth to offspring having a strong- 
Iv-marked character, becomes in a degree moulded to 
that character, and tends again to produce it. 

" At all events the teaching of this fact is plain, 
and we wonld never, on any account, allow any valued 
hens to mate with another breed. We have known 
ourselves several cases in which hens once crossed have 
reproduced strong cases of that cross two years after- 
ward ; and many otherwise unaccountable occurrences, 
which have given rise to bitter recriminations, may be 
thus very easily explained." ^ 

The intensity of the influence of the male element 
of f ertihzation upon the ova seems to vary widely in 
different species of animals. In many species a single 
act of copulation is sufficient to impregnate a nmnber 
of eggs, while in others a repetition of the act is ap- 
parently required to produce fecundation. 

Mr. Wright has collected a number of instances 
showing that the eggs of the hen are fertile from four 
to sixteen days after separation from the cock ; ^ and 
it is a fact well known to breeders that, with turkeys, 
a single copulation is sufficient to impregnate all the 
eggs of one " laying," ' while it is stated by Mr. Chapin, 
of Milf ord, Massachusetts, " that a hen-turkey would 
lay two or three successive litters of (fertile) eggs, hav- 
ing been impregnated only for the first litter." * 

^ Loc. cit^ p. 130. 
« Ibid., pp. 129, 130. 

3 Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, vol. xii., p. 198 ; Teget- 
meier's " Poultry-Book," p. 2Y3 ; " The Illustrated Book of Poultry," 
by Wright, pp. 130, 519. 

4 "Agricultural Report of Massachusetts," 1863, p. 57. 



274. PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

Agassiz lias shown tliat turtles begin to copulate 
at the age of seven years, but do not lay until they 
are eleven years old. They copulate twice each year 
for four years, before the eggs are fully matured. 
" Upon opening large numbers of young CJirysemys 
jpicta^- it was ascertained that, up to their seventh year, 
the ovary contained only eggs of very small size, not 
distinguishable into sets ; but that with every succeed- 
ing year there appears in that organ a larger and larger 
set of eggs, each set made up of the usual average 
number of eggs which this species lays, so that speci- 
mens eleven years old for the first time contain ma- 
ture eggs, ready to be laid in the spring." 

From observations made by Agassiz, " it appears 
that the first copulation coincides with a new develop- 
ment of the eggs, in consequence of which a certain 
number of them, equal to that which the species lays, 
acquire a larger size, and go on growing for four suc- 
cessive years before they are laid, while a new set is 
started every year, at the period of copulation in the 
spring, enabling this species to lay annually from five 
to seven eggs after it has reached its eleventh year." ^ 

After a careful examination of all the known facts 
bearing upon this interesting subject, Agassiz became 
satisfied that " the first copulation only determines the 
further growth of a certain number of eggs, which re- 
quire a series of successive fecundations to undergo 
their final development ; " and that " in turtles a repe- 
tition of the act, twice every year for four successive 
years, is necessary to determine the final development 

^ A common fresh-water turtle, 

« "Embryology of the Turtle," by Agassiz, pp. 490, 49L 



INFLUENCE OF A PREVIOUS IMPREGNATION. 275 

of a new individual, which, may be accomplished in 
other animals by a single copulation." * 

The repeated fertilization of the eggs of turtles is 
apparently analogous to the phenomena observed in 
the transmitted influence of a previous impregnation 
to the offspring by a subsequent impregnation, as 
pointed out by Agassiz in a lecture before the Massa- 
chusetts Board of Agriculture in 1860 ; and he remarks 
that his experiments with dogs, that have already been 
mentioned, seem to show that " the impregnation of 
an ovum may take place a long time previous to its 
development, and that it probably only requires the 
stimulus of future connections with a male to bring it 
into existence." " 

In a subsequent lecture, in speaking of the influ- 
ence of a previous impregnation upon offspring at a 
later period, Agassiz says : " It therefore shows what 
I have satisfied myself to be the truth among other 
animals, by numerous experiments; that the act of 
fecundation is not an act which is limited in its effect, 
but that it is an act which affects the whole system, 
the sexual system especially, and in the sexual system 
the ovary to be impregnated hereafter is so modified 
by the first act that later impregnations do not efface 
that first impression." ' 

This is undoubtedly the most rational explanation 
of the cases under consideration that has been pre- 
sented, and there are additional facts which show that 
the male element of fertilization may extend its influ- 

^ Loc. ciL, p. 491. 

2 "Agricultural Report of Massachusetts," 1863, pp. 56, 57. 

^ Ibid., 1856-'57, p. 84. 



276 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

ence to the ovary itself, as well as to the germs that 
are not fully developed. 

During the period of heat in the lower animals, 
and of menstruation in women, one or more germs are 
matured and escape from the ovary, so that the term 
periodical ovulation has been used to designate the 
process. 

When a germ is thus liberated the walls of the 
follicle that contained it become thickened, and a pe- 
culiar cicatrix is formed, which is called the corjpus 
luteum. If impregnation of the germ has not taken 
place, the corjpus luteum attains its maximum of de- 
velopment at the end of three weeks (measuring three- 
fourths of an inch in length and one-half inch wide), 
and then gradually diminishes in size, so that a minnte 
cicatrix remains at the end of seven or eight weeks, 
and in the course of seven or eight months it entirely 
disappears. 

When the germ is impregnated the corjpus luteum 
attains a greater development, continuing its growth 
to the end of the fourth month, when it measures 
seven-eighths of an inch in length, and three- fourths 
of an inch in depth. 

During the fifth and sixth months it remains un- 
changed, but diminishes again during the seventh, 
eighth, and ninth months, when it measures half an 
inch in length and three-eighths of an inch in depth. 
Several months after delivery the corjpus luteum en- 
tirely disappears.^ 

The mere fact of impregnation seems to determine 

^ Dalton's " Human Physiology," pp. 564-573 ; Flint's " Physiology 
of Man," vol. v. (" Generation"), pp. 307-312. 



INFLUENCE OF A PREVIOUS IMPREGNATION. 277 

the greater or less development and duration of tlie 
corjpus hiteum^ and, althongli it has been supposed that 
this difference is owing to the greater vascular activity 
of the generative organs of the female during preg- 
nancy, it appears probable, from the facts that have 
been presented, that the corj^s luteum of pregnancy 
derives its distinctive peculiarities from the direct in- 
fluence of the male element upon the ovary. 

Mr. Darwin cites a number of instances in the 
vegetable kingdom to show the " direct action of the 
male element on the mother-form," and he comes to 
the conclusion that " the male element not only affects, 
in accordance with its proper function, the germ, but 
the surrounding tissues of the mother-plant." ' 

After citing some of the cases that have already 
been presented of the influence upon offspring of a 
previous impregnation of the mother, Mr. Darwin 
says, " The analogy from the direct action of foreign 
pollen on the ovarium and seed-coats of the mother- 
plant strongly supports the belief that the male ele- 
ment acts directly on the reproductive organs of the 
female, wonderful as is this action, and not through 
the intervention of the crossed embryo." ' 

It will be observed that this explanation of the 
continued influence of the male upon offspring by 
another male is precisely the same as that given by 
Agassiz, and it is believed that there is a strong pre- 
ponderance of evidence in its favor. 

In the first observed cases, it was claimed that this 
peculiar influence of the male was limited to the first 

* " Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. i., p. 483. 
3 Ibid., p. 486. 



278 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

impregnation of the female onlj, but there is good 
reason to believe that every impregnation may leave 
its impress upon partly-developed germs, and be thus 
transmitted with the characters of a subsequent fecun- 
dation. 

The intensity of the influence of the male may be 
impaired, by an excessive use of the procreative organs, 
and it has been observed in fowls that when the male 
is " over-mated " the eggs are sometimes imperfectly 
impregnated. 

Mr. Wright remarks that " it is a notorious fact 
that when a cock is over-mated the eggs always hatch 
in a very unsatisfactory manner ; " and he adds : " But 
besides mere fertility there are other considerations ; 
and, in the first place, it appears indisputable that 
eggs may be so far fertilized as to commence hatching, 
and. yet not have sufficient vigor to complete the pro- 
cess successfully. The number of cases where such 
experiments have been made as we have quoted, in 
which part of the eggs produced showed signs of 
hatching but did not hatch^ is proportionately very 
great, and the conclusion will not be lost on the intel- 
ligent breeder. 

" But still further, and coming back to the consid- 
erations with which we commenced this part of the 
subject, it is utterly impossible to resist the conclusion 
that, beyond fertilization, the act of union exerts, in 
many cases, a more mysterious and far-reaching influ- 
ence." ^ 

The same writer is inclined to the belief that, when 
a hen-turkey is mated but once for an entire laying of 
^ " The Illustrated Poultry-Book," pp. 130, 131. 



INFLUENCE OF A PREVIOUS IMPREGNATION. 279 

eggs, the young birds are not so strong and vigorous 
as when the male runs permanently with a dozen or 
fifteen hens/ 

It seems to be quite generally acknowledged by 
poultry-breeders that, to produce strong, vigorous off- 
spring, the cocks should not be allowed to mate with 
more than from four to six hens, if in confinement, or 
with twice that number, under the most favorable 
circumstances, when running at large.' 

The effects of an impaired influence of the male, 
in the process of procreation, upon his offspring, need 
to be more fully investigated; but there are many 
facts that indicate that this is in all probability a potent 
cause of degeneracy.' 

Closely connected with the facts under discussion 
are the observations that have been made on the lower 
animals, showing that at least several spermatozoons 
(the active male elements of fertilization) are neces- 
sary to produce a complete impregnation of the 
germ; but it is perhaps impossible, from the differ- 
ent conditions presented, to determine experimentally 



* Loc. cil, p. 519. 

2 " The Illustrated Poultry-Book," by Wright, pp. 44, 306 ; Journal 
of (he Royal Agricultural Society, vol. xii., p. 180; "Domestic Fowl," 
by Richardson, p. 50 ; Geyelin's " Poultry-Breeding," p. 24 ; Mowbray 
on " Poultry," p. 33. 

^ Nordhoff describes the Mormon children as " undersized, loosely 
built, flabby. . . . The young girls were pale, and had unwholesome, 
waxy complexions ; the young men were small and thin, and looked 
weak ; " but this he attributes to " the hard struggle with life while 
these youth were babes " (Nordhoff's " California," pp. 42, 43). 

(The facts cited above, however, seem to indicate that these peculi- 
arities may, with greater reason, be attributed to polygamy.) 



280 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BKEEDING. 

the same class of facts in animals more higUy organ- 
ized.' 

" It appears, from Mr. Newport's ingenious experi- 
ments, that the contact of a single spermatozoon is 
not adequate to produce complete fecundation, but 
that the penetration of a certain number of sperma- 
tozoa is requisite ; and he has ascertained that fecun- 
dation may be effected jpartially (so as to occasion 
some, though not all, of the normal changes in the 
ovum) by a smaller amount." ' 

The last-mentioned fact, it will be noticed, is in 
accordance with the experience of breeders of fowls, 
to which reference has already been made. 

* " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. ii., p. 464 ; Flint's 
" Physiology of Man," vol. v., p. 853. 

' Carpenter's " Comparative Physiology," p. 532. 



CHAPTEE XIII. 

mTEA-TJTEEmE INFLUENCES. 

The abnormal peculiarities occasionally observed 
in animals at tbe time of birth, that are not recog- 
nized as family cbaracteristics, have been popularly 
attributed to some mysterious influence of the imagi- 
nation of the mother in the process of intra-uterine 
development. 

This influence is supposed by many to be exerted 
not only in mammals, where the most intimate rela- 
tions are known to exist between the mother and the 
embryo during the period of utero-gestation, but also 
in fowls, where the egg is separated from the mother 
before the slightest indications of embryological de- 
velopment can' be detected/ 

The following cases, which have been reported as 
illustrations of this influence, will be sufficient to show 
the kind of evidence on which it rests, and the varied 
results it is claimed to produce : 

^ " Cyclopsedia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. ii., p. 475 ; "Wright's 
" Book of Poultry," pp. 131, 314. 

It has even been assumed that birds, in the process of incubation, 
exert an influence upon the eggs they are hatching that is sufficient to 
modify the characters of the progeny. In artificial incubation, however, 
and when the eggs of one species are hatched by another, the inherited 
characters are not modified, 
13 



282 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BEEEDING. 

" It is stated that the ambition, courage, and mili- 
tary skill of E'apoleon Bonaparte had their foundation 
in the circumstance that the emperor's mother fol- 
lowed her husband in his campaigns, and was sub- 
jected to all the dangers of a military life ; while, on 
the other hand, the murder of David Kizzio in the 
presence of Queen Mary was the death-blow to the 
personal courage of King James I., and occasioned 
that strong dislike of edged weapons for which that 
crafty and pedantic monarch was said to be remark- 
able."^ 

At the siege of Landau, in 1Y93, " in addition to 
a violent cannonading, which kept the women for 
some time in a constant state of alarm, the arsenal 
blew up with a terrific explosion, which few could 
hear with unshaken nerves. Out of ninety-two chil- 
dren born in that district within a few months after- 
ward. Baron Percy states that sixteen died at the in- 
stant of birth ; thirty-three languished for from eight 
to ten months and then died ; eight became idiotic, 
and died before the age of five years ; and two came 
into the world with numerous fractures of the bones 
and limbs, caused by the cannonading and explosion. 
Here, then, is a total of fifty-nine children out of 
ninety-two, or within a trifle of two out of every 
three, actually killed through the medium of .the 
mother's alarm, and the natural consequences upon 
her own organization." ^ 

Mr. Boswell relates the following, on the authority 
of " Mr. Mustard, an extensive farmer on Sir James 

^ " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. ii., p. 474, 
2 Carpenter's "Human Physiology," p. 1011. 



INTRA-UTERINE INFLUENCES. 283 

Carnegie's estate in Angus," Scotland : " One of his 
cows chanced to come into season while pasturing 
on a field which was bounded bj that of one of his 
neighbors, out of which field an ox jumped and 
went with the cow until she was brought home to 
the bull. 

" The ox was white, with black spots, and horned. 
Mr. Mustard had not a horned beast in his possession, 
nor one with any white on it. ^Nevertheless, the 
produce of the following spring was a black-and-white 
calf, with horns." ^ 

" It is related that, at the time when a stallion was 
about to cover a mare, the stallion's pale color was ob- 
jected to, whereupon the groom, knowing in the effect 
of color upon horses' imaginations, presented before 
the stallion a mare of a pleasing color, which had the 
desired effect of determining a dark color in the off- 
spring. This is said to have been repeated with suc- 
cess in the same horse more than once." ' 

" Prof. Dalton, whose accuracy upon such a point 
cannot be questioned, noted the following : "While he 
was lecturing upon the subject of generation, at the 
College of Physicians and Surgeons of JSTew York, 
the janitor of the college called his attention to his 
child, which presented a deformity of the external 
ear, as though a portion had been taken off with a 
sharp instrument. The janitor stated that his wife, 
during her pregnancy, dreamed that she saw a man 
with a similar deformity. This dream was very vivid, 
and she immediately related it to her husband. They 

^ " Transactions of the Highland Agricultural Society," vol. i., p. 28. 
^ " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. ii., p. 474. 



284 PRINCIPLES OP STOCK-BREEDING. 

both believed that this was the cause of the deformity 
of the child." ^ 

A gentleman of my acquaintance states that he 
saw a lamb that resembled a rabbit in the form of its 
feet ; the dam had been kept in a pasture where rab- 
bits were numerous. 

"A woman whose children had previously been 
healthy, six weeks before conception is suddenly 
frighted by a beggar who presents a stumped arm 
and a wooden leg, and threatened to embrace her ; the 
next child had only one stump leg and two stump arms." 

" A young woman, frighted in her first pregnancy 
by the sight of a child with hare-lip, bears a child 
with a complete deformity of the same kind ; her 
second child had merely a deep slit, and her third no 
more than a mark in the same place." 

" A child is born with a hare-lip, which was caused 
by the mother's frequently seeing a child with the 
same deformity during her pregnancy." 

" A lady in London, who is frightened by a beggar 
presenting the stump of an arm to her, bears a child 
wanting a hand." 

"A child is born covered with hairs, in conse- 
quence of the mother having been in the habit of 
beholding a picture of St. John the Baptist." 

"A woman gives birth to a child covered with 
hair and having the claws of a bear, from her con- 
stantly beholding the images and pictures of bears 
hung up everywhere in the dwelling of the Ursini 
family, to which she belonged." ' 

* Flint's " Physiology of Man," vol. v., p. 351. 

" The last six cases are quoted from Dr. Allen Thomson, who 



INTRA-UTERINE INFLUENCES. 285 

The most remarkable case of supposed influence 
of the imagination that has come to my knowledge 
was communicated to me by Mr. John B. Poyntz, a 
breeder of Jersey cattle, Maysville, Kentucky, in a 
letter dated December 18, 1872. At my request he 
made a more particular statement of the attending 
circumstances, substantiated by affidavits, which was 
pubhshed in The Bulletin^ Maysville, Kentucky, Feb- 
ruary 18, 18Y5. 

The published statement of Mr. Poyntz was as 
follows : " Alderney Farm, near Maysville, Kentucky, 
January 18, 1875. In the year 1863 the theory of 
Prof. Thury, of Geneva, Switzerland — the production 
of sex at wiU — was undergoing investigation on my 
farm. For that purpose I selected a lot of Alderney 
heifers and a bull; none of them were marked or 
branded, nor were their ancestors subsequent to 1850. 
In the month of July the cattle were placed on a 
woodland pasture, well provided with water and blue 
grass, and in the pasture were placed a number of 
government horses, w^here they remained several 
weeks. Each and every horse was branded on the 
lower part of the left shoulder with the letters IT. S. 
In the spring and summer of 1804 the heifers had 
calves. One of the number produced a fawn-colored 

copies over forty similar cases from Burdach and Dr. Blundell (" Cyclo- 
pgedia of Anatomy and Physiology," article " Generation," vol. ii., p. 
4'75). 

In connection with the last case. Dr. Thomson remarks that '* it is 
not stated by the author of ' "Waverley ' whether anything of the kind 
ever happened in the Bradwardine family ; " and he might with equal 
propriety have raised the question as to the frequency of such malfor- 



286 PKINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

or reddish calf, and on the lower part of the shoulder 
were the letters U. S., formed of white hairs, plainly 
to be seen by casual observers ; was shown by me to 
friends and visitors ; and in due time my U. S. heifer 
had a calf which was marked with U. S. in the same 
place as her dam ; the letter S. was not so perfectly 
formed as on the dam, but was too plain to be taken 
for anything other than the letter S. In the growth 
of these cattle or cows the letters moved higher upon 
the shoulder and appeared to elongate, and, in five or 
six years, the character or form of the letters was lost 
and appeared only as numerous small white specks or 
spots. This is the statement in full, which I propose 
to substantiate by the statement of others sworn to 
before the proper authorities of this county. 

" John B. Poyntz." 

" This day appeared John B. Poyntz, who is well 
known to me, signed the above statements, and made 
oath that they were true. 

[Seal.] " C. B. Pieece, Notary PiillicP ' 

* Accompanying this statement were the following affidavits : 

"State op Kentucky, ) 
Mason Cofnty, y '**- 

" F. H. Bierbower, a resident of Maysville, in the State above writ- 
ten, being first duly sworn, states that in the summer of 1863, while he 
was Captain of Company A, of Fortieth Kentucky Mounted Infantry, 
he pastured some twenty or thirty head of horses on the farm of John 
B. Poyntz, near the city of Maysville ; the said horses were the prop- 
erty of the United States, and were distinctly branded on the left fore- 
shoulder with the letters tJ. S. ; the affiant further states that cattle 
were confined at the same time with said horses in the same pasture. 

" F. H. Bierbower." 



INTRA-UTERINE INFLUENCES. 287 

This case might be cited to show the literary abil- 
ity and patriotism of the Alderneys, as well as their 
powers of observation and active imagination. 

The longing of the mother for strawberries, grapes, 
cherries, etc., has been supposed to produce marks on 
the offspring that present a fancied resemblance to 
the object of desire. 

The cases in which the habitual condition of the 
mother is repeated in her offspring do not differ in 

" This day appeared F. H. Bierbower, who is well known to me, 
signed the above statements, and made oath that they were true. 
[Seal.] " Chas. B. Pierce, Notary Puhlicy 

" Matsviile, KENTtrcKr, January 21, 1875. 
" I hired on the Alderney farm of John B. Poyntz, and had the care 
of his herd of cattle, and remember well the circumstance of the Gov- 
ernment horses being pastured with the cattle, also the birth of the 
calf marked with the letters U. S., in white hairs on the shoulder, the 
calf being of reddish or fawn color, and that when she had a calf it 
was marked in the same place and with the same letters as the dam — 
the letter S. was not so perfectly formed, but could not be mistaken 
for any other letter. Samuel Oldham." 

" This day appeared Samuel Oldham, who is well known to me, 
signed the above statements, and made oath that they were true. 
[Seal.] " Chas. B. Pierce, Notary Puhlic.^^ 

" Matsville, Kenttjckt, January 21, 1875. 
" I purchased a farm adjoining that of John B. Poyntz, upon which 
I have lived up to this date, have often seen his U. S. heifer, as she 
was called, and noticed the letters on her shoulder in white hairs ; also 
remember of her having a calf marked in the same manner on the 
shoulder ; they were shown by Poyntz to his friends and visitors as 
curiosities. John H. Wilson." 

" This day appeared John H. Wilson, who is well known to me, 
signed the above statements, and made oath that they were true. 
[Seal.] " Chas. B. Pierce, Notary Fublic." 



288 PRINCIPLES OP STOCK-BREEDING. 

any essential particular from the instances of heredi- 
tary transmission of acquired habits, that have been 
noticed in another chapter. 

A habit of the mind of either parent may be trans- 
mitted to their progeny in accordance with the same 
laws that determine the transmission of any other 
character or quality, and it seems to be entirely un- 
necessary to assume that the imagination of the mother 
is an active agent in determining the result. 

Malformations of the foetus have not been attrib- 
uted by physiologists to the direct influence of the 
imagination of the mother, for the following rea- 
sons : 

" 1. Malformations seldom, or perhaps never, agree 
with the apprehensions or fears, ajpriori, of pregnant 
women. On the contrary, it often happens that a 
woman who has once procreated a malformation and 
is continually troubled by the fear of another similar 
occurrence, may become the happy mother of a second 
well-foiTQed child." 

" 2. Malformations occur likewise among the infe- 
rior animals — insects, testaceous animals, echinoder- 
mata — ^in which the development of psychical life is 
very imperfect, and the oviparous generation of which 
must preserve the young from the influence of disor- 
dered maternal imagination." 

" In the case of twins, as the acephali specially 
show, one child may be malformed and the other in 
perfect condition, notwithstanding they were both 
exposed to the same influence. 

" That more deeply-situated organs, the very ex- 
istence of which may be unknown to the pregnant 



INTRA-UTERINE INFLUENCES. 289 

woman, may be malformed, as for instance the heart, 
the intestinal tube, etc." ^ 

In most cases of malformation the mental impres- 
sion that is assigned as a cause is not presumed to 
have been injurious until the malformation is ob- 
served, while the violent shocks that give rise to 
apprehensions of injury are usually found to have 
made no impression upon the development of the 
foetus. 

The anatomical relations of the embryo and its 
uterine envelopes likewise render it improbable that 
any mental impressions of the mother can be trans- 
mitted to any particular part of the foetus, to exert a 
specific influence in its development. 

There are many considerations that seem to indi- 
cate that malformations of the embryo are determined 
by fixed organic laws that preclude the intervention 
of paroxysmal causes. 

"We never see in malformed births dissimilar 
parts fused or united with each other, such as the 
intestinal tube with the aorta, the arteries with the 
nerves, etc. Each part, therefore, retains to a certain 
degree its own independence. . . . The gullet some- 
times coalesces with the larynx, and the bladder with 
the rectum ; but these parts are not originally dissimi- 
lar, being developed from a common mass. 

" The malformed parts are restricted to their de- 
teiTuinate place, according to what Fleischmann de- 
nominates lex tojoicorum. 

" No malformed organ loses entirely its own char- 

* W. Yrolik, " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," article 
" Teratology," vol. iv., p. 943. 



290 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

acter, and no malformed animal loses its generic dis- 
tinction. It is therefore jnstlj observed by Som- 
mering that JS'atm-e does not deviate ad infinitum^ 
and that even in monstrosities a distinct gradation 
and natural order are observable. 

" This order appears even — 1. In the number in 
which they occur within a certain space of time. In 
three thousand births in Paris there occurs about one 
monster. 

" 2. In the sex. In impeded development the 
malformed children are more frequently female, in 
some sorts of double monsters, male. 

"3. In a definite jpvojportion between the species 
of animals^ and the most frequent 7)ionstrosities in 
them, Cyclops,^ for instance, especially with a snout, 
occur most frequently in swine ; double monsters in 
man. 

" 4. In the constant form of monsters^ even among 
the most heterogeneous animals. Cyclopia, double 
monsters, acrania,'' have in birds precisely the same 
characters as in the mammalia. 

"5. In the greater predisposition to monstrosity 
among some animals. This is greater among domes- 
tic than among wild animals ; greater among the more 
perfect than among the less perfect ; three-fourths of 
the monstrosities occur among the mammalia, one- 
fourth among birds. They happen seldom among 
reptilia, still less frequently among fishes, moUusca, 
articulata, and radiata." 

" From these premises the consequence is easily 

^ Monsters with one eye. 
2 Headless monsters. 



INTRA-UTERINE INFLUENCES. 291 

derived tliat monstrosities do not take place b j chance, 
and therefore do not by any means deserve the so very 
general appellation of caprices of Nature {lusus na- 
turoe). The result of this is, that they often present 
a quantitative antithesis, according to what Geofiroy 
St.-Hilaire denominates loi de halancement.^ Accord- 
ing to this law the excessive development of one part 
of the body is often connected with checked forma- 
tion of another. To anencejphalia^ cyclopia, sjpina 
'bifida^ are often joined fingers and toes in excessive 
numbers ; to sireno-melia^ superfluous vertebrsft and 
ribs ; and frequently there occur in double monsters 
maKormations of the head. Meckel saw in one in- 
stance this antithesis extend itself over different chil- 
dren of one and the same mother. A girl had on 
each extremity a superfluous digit ; one hand of her 
sister wanted four fingers, being the number of digits 
which her sister had in excess, reckoning the four 
extremities together." * 

The laws of embryological development furnish a 
satisfactory explanation of the cases in which there is 
a fancied resemblance of the foetus to some of the 
lower animals. 

There is a close correspondence between the em- 
bryos of all vertebrate animals in the earliest stages of 
development ; " and it is only with the advance of the 
developmental process that indications successively 

^ Another name for law of correlation. 

* Brainless monsters. 

^ Fissure of the spinal column. 

* Monsters without feet. 

5 W. Vrolik, " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," article 
" Tetratology," vol. iv., pp. 945, 946. 



292 PEINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

present themselves, wliioli enable us to distingiiish, 
one after another, the characters of the order, the 
family, the genns, the species, the variety, the sex, 
and the individual — the more special features progres- 
sively evolving themselves out of the Tiiore general^ 
which is the expression of the law of development, 
common to all organized beings." ^ 

If the process of development is arrested in the 
early stages of embryonic growth, the foetus, from the 
imperfection of its organization, may in many respects 
resemble some of the inferior animals. 

The arrest of development at an early period may 
prevent the formation of any vestige of a particular 
organ ; or, if it occurs at a later period, the organ may 
be rudimentary. 

Any severe shock of the nervous system of the 
mother, whether by fright or otherwise, may impair 
the process of nutrition, and thus produce an arrest of 
development in the entire embryo or some of its 
parts. 

The rudimentary or imperfectly-developed organ 
may, however, attain nearly its natural size, as its 
growth may continue after the cessation of the devel- 
opmental process. 

It is likewise probable that the habitual mental 
condition of the mother may have an influence upon 
the nutrition of the embryo, and thus interfere with 
its development. It is well known that "a fit of 
passion in the nurse vitiates the quality of the milk 
to such a degree as to cause colic and indigestion (or 

1 Carpenter's " Human Physiology," p. 987 ; " Comparative Physi- 
ology," p. 124. 



INTRA-UTERINE INFLUENCES. 293 

even death) in the sncMng infant ; " ^ and it is not 
unreasonable to suppose that the nutritive fluids may 
be modified by a similiar influence during the period 
of gestation. 

Among the abnormal conditions produced by an 
aiTest of development are hare-lip, cleft-palate, fissures 
of the body or of the spinal column (spina 'bifida)^ 
absence or malformation of the limbs, deficient num- 
ber of the digits, etc. 

The limbs of all vertebrate animals are formed by 
" a kind of budding process, as offshoots of the exter- 
nal layer of the blastodermic membrane. They are 
at first mere rounded elevations, without any separa- 
tion between the fingers and toes, or any distinction 
between the different articulations. 

" Subsequently the free extremity of each limb 
becomes divided into the phalanges of the fingers or 
toes ; and afterward the articulations of the wrist and 
ankle, knee and elbow, shoulder and hip, appear suc- 
cessively from below upward." ' 

The feet of frogs, of birds, of squirrels and rab- 
bits, of cattle, and even the feet and hands of the 
human foetus, are all, in an early stage of development, 
webbed as if fitted for swimming, and the characteris- 
tic form of the digits in each species is only observed 
at a later period of growth.^ 

The divergence from this common type, observed 

^ Dr. A. Combe, on " The Management of Infants," p. 76, quoted 
in Carpenter's " Human Physiology," p. 1011. 

2 Dalton's " Human Physiology," p. 630. 

2 Agassiz's " Lectures on Embryology," p. 102 ; Carpenter's '* Hu- 
man Physiology," p. 1007; Colin, "Physiologic Comparee," etc., tome 
ii., p. 570. 



294: PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

in the process of development, has been made use of 
in the classification of animals : as in birds, for exam- 
ple, those with webbed feet are placed lower in the 
scale of organization, the developmental process not 
having proceeded so far as in those with separate toes. 

In the higher animals, digits that adhere or are 
connected by a membrane represent the embryonic 
type that has been retained through defective devel- 
opment. The lamb mentioned above, that presented 
a fancied resemblance to a rabbit in the form of its 
feet, was undoubtedly an instance of arrested de- 
velopment. 

" The foetus in utero, even at early periods of its 
development, is liable to a large number of organic 
alterations, and even to lose its Hfe, in consequence of 
inflammation attacking the uterus of the mother, the 
foetal appendages, or its own system. From such 
causes arise a variety of pathological changes in the 
foetus, as atrophy, arrest of development, amputation 
of limbs, and many other affections." ^ 

The particular part of the foetus affected by disease 
is undoubtedly determined by the same general con- 
ditions that determine the seat of disease after birth, 
among which may be enumerated irregularities of the 
circulation, producing local congestions or inflamma- 
tion, hereditary predisposition to disease of particular 
organs, mechanical injuries, and specific diseases com- 
municated by the mother, as small-pox, scarlet fever, 
measles, etc." 

* Montgomery, " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," article 
" Foetus," vol. ii., p. 330. 
» Ibid., p. 333. 



INTRA-UTERINE INFLUENCES. 295 

" According to Haiismann, the effect of variations 
of the external atmosphere is visible in the unusual 
number of blind colts and hydrocephalic pigs which 
are born after a wet summer." ^ 

Atrophy, and even amputation of the limbs of the 
foetus, has in many instances been produced by the 
mechanical pressure of ligamentous bands, or loops of 
the umbilical cord.' 

From the facts already presented, it must be seen 
that malformations of the embryo are produced by 
well-known physiological and pathological conditions, 
that interfere with the normal process of develop- 
ment. 

From what is now known of the laws of embryo- 
logical development and the causes of abnormal varia- 
tions, the theory that the imagination of the mother 
has a direct influence in producing malformations, or 
impressing peculiar marks upon the embryo, appears 
to be based on insufficient evidence. 

* Allen Thomson, "Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," article 
" Generation," vol. ii., p. 4Y5. 

' Montgomery, loc. cit., pp. 327-330. 



CHAPTEE XIY. 

SEX. 

The causes tliat determine sex have been a subject 
of speculation from tbe earliest times. The theories 
that were first framed, in accordance with some fan- 
cied analogy, as an expression of the laws of the or- 
ganization, have been repeatedly revived in their orig- 
inal form, without adding to our knowledge of the 
conditions that determine the result. 

From the fact that there are two testicles and two 
ovaries in the higher animals, symmetrically placed, 
one on each side of the median line of the body, it 
was supposed that the right ovary and testicle were 
concerned in the production of males, and the left in 
the production of females. 

Physiologists have long loiown that this theory 
had no foundation in fact, as males with one testicle 
and females with one ovary produce offspring of 
both sexes. The following case, reported by Prof. 
Marzolo, of Padua, is of particular interest: "In a 
patient, thirty-five years of age, the left ovary was 
removed for cystic tumor. The woman recovered 
from the operation, and became pregnant about a 
year after. She was delivered at full term of twins, 



SEX. 297 

a male and a female, and both of the cMldren did 
well." ' 

In a case reported by Dr. Granville, of London, 
to the Royal Society,^ the left Fallopian tube and ovary 
of a woman forty years old were entirely wanting ; 
yet she had been the mother of eleven children of 
both sexes ; and, " a few days before her death, had 
been delivered of twins — one male and one female." ' 

" M. Jadelot, too, has given the dissection of a fe- 
male who had been delivered of several children — 
boys and girls ; and yet she had no ovary or Fallopian 
tube on the right side. Lepelletier asserts that he saw 
a similar case in the hospital at Mans, in 1825, and 
the Recueils of the Societe de Medecine of Paris con- 
tains the history of an extra-uterine gestation, in which 
a male foetus was contained in the left ovary." * 

Mr. J. Buckingham, of Zanesville, Ohio, gives the 
following report of an experiment made by himself 
to test the truth of this theory : " Taking a boar," he 
says, " I took out his left testicle, and turned him into 
a lot with three sows, one of which had her left ova- 
ries (ovary) out, the other the right ones (one) out, 
and one not spayed. The next lot had a boar with 
his right testicle out, and three sows fixed as the 
others had been. The next lot had a boar and three 
sows fixed as the first three had been. Now for the 
result : Every sow had from seven to nine pigs. 

^ Flint's " Physiology of Man," vol. v., p. 346 ; from Oazeite Medi- 
cale de Paris, 1873, No. 44, p. 582. 

2 "Philosophical Transactions," 1808, p. 308. 

2 Dunglison's " Physiology," vol. ii., p. 400. 

* Dunglison, loc. cit., p. 410. , 



298 PEINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

There were not less than three nor more than five 
male pigs in every litter, or just as near half of each 
as there could be." ^ 

Notwithstanding these conclusive cases, experi- 
ments are now in progress of a similar character, to 
test the practicability of breeding the sexes at will.^ 

A theory was advanced by Prof. Thury, of the 
Academy of Geneva, that for a time was quite popu- 
lar, and is now frequently advocated, although it is 
readily disproved by direct observation. The first 
notice of this theory in this country was published in 
the Country Gentleman^ from which we make the fol- 
lowing quotations : " The sex depends," says M. Thu- 
ry, " upon the degree of maturity of the ^^^ at the 
moment of fecundation, that which has not reached a 
certain degree of maturity producing the female, and, 
if fecundated when this point of maturity has passed, 
producing a male." 

The theory, it will be perceived, is based upon the 
supposition that " the production of male organs arises 
from the greater maturity and more complete develop- 
ment of the germ," ' which is directly in conflict with 
observations on the lower animals quoted below. 

Some startling results were claimed to have been 
obtained, in experiments made for the purpose of 
testing the truth of the theory, but they need verifi- 
cation before they can be accepted as evidence. 

Although there are but few cases on record in 
which exact statements are made of the facts bearing 

* Country Gentleman, June, 1865, p. 364. 

2 See Scientific Farmer, 1876, p. 181. 

^ Country Gentleman, January 7, 1864, p. 12. 



SEX. 299 

on this theory, the observed results of ordinary farm- 
practice are sufficient to disprove it. 

On the Michigan Agricultural College farm, when 
under my direction, the births for ten years were as 
follows: Sheep, 102.5 males to 100 females; cattle, 
118.4 males to 100 females. 

The system pursued for the entire time was the 
same. The rams were turned with the ewes every 
forenoon during the breeding-season ; and the cows, 
as a rule, were served as soon as they were discovered 
to be in heat, the herd being frequently visited during 
the day, and driven to the barn every night and morn- 
ing. With very few exceptions, the females were 
served during the first haK of the period of heat, 
which, according to the theory of M. Thury, should 
have given a very large proportion of females. 

The records show some remarkable facts that will 
be recognized by breeders as fairly representing the 
general experience of farmers. In 1864 and 1865 the 
bull-calves were 2.5 to 1 heifer ; in 1866 and 1867 the 
heifers were considerably in excess ; in 1868 and 1869 
the heifers were nearly 2 to 1 bull ; in 1870 the bulls 
were decidedly more numerous ; and in 1871 and 1872 
there were more than 2 bulls to 1 heifer. In 1872 
there were 2 rams to 1 ewe, and the bulls were nearly 
in the same proportion to the heifers, which would 
seem to indicate some peculiar influence of the season 
in favor of the males. In 1871, however, the bulls 
were largely in excess of the cow-calves, and there 
was quite as decided a preponderance of females among 
the sheep. 

On "Waushakum farm, according to Dr. Sturte- 



300 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BEEEDING. 

vant, tlie Ayrshires, during nine and a half years, pro- 
duced "64 bull-calves and 43 cow-calves — a propor- 
tion of 125.5 males to 100 females ; " while the Ayr- 
shires of the Oneida Community produced " 26 bull 
and 31 heifer calves — a proportion of 83.8 male to 
100 female births." ' 

Although the last-mentioned cases have no direct 
bearing upon the theory in question — the period of 
heat at which copulation took place not being stated 
— ^they are of interest in this connection, as they fairly 
represent the variations that take place without ap- 
parent cause, under ordinary methods of management. 

In the following cases of late impregnation, re- 
ported by Mr. Slade, the males are in excess, as they 
were also in some of the instances of early impreg- 
nation above mentioned. " Three years ago last 
spring," says Mr. Slade, " I had a very likely sow that 
was in heat, and I let her remain thirty-six hours be- 
fore taking her to the boar. The result was she had 
seventeen pigs ; eleven of them were males and the 
others females. ... At the next litter she remained 
about the same length of time in heat before taking 
the boar, and had nine male and two female pigs." " 

On many farms the males run with the breeding 
females during the season, so that copulation takes 
place at the beginning of the period of heat ; and yet 
in such cases there is nearly an equal number of each 
sex on the average, taking a number of years together, 
w^hile the males may be in excess one year and the 
females in excess another year. 

^ Scientific Farmer, ISYO, p. 166. 

8 "Massachusetts Agricultural Keport," 1866-'67, p. 117. 



SEX. 301 

The physiological objections to this theory, so far 
as any practical advantages that might be derived 
from it are concerned, are quite as forcible as the 
results of direct observation. 

Fecundation, as is well known, is the result of the 
union of the spermatozoa of the male element with 
the ovum. Now, this conjunction of the male and 
the female elements of generation does not take place, 
in the higher animals at least, at the time of copula- 
tion, and it is therefore impossible to determine, in 
any particular case, the precise time that fecundation 
takes place. Observations upon the lower animals 
show that the spermatozoa may come in contact with 
the ovum in the uterus, in the course of the Fallopian 
tube, or at the ovary.^ 

The precise period at which the ovum escapes 
from the ovary is uncertain ; some of the best author- 
ities are of the opinion that the regular time for its 
escape is toward the termination of the period of heat, 
while Coste has shown that it may escape in the early 
part of the period, or toward its close.'^ 

The conditions that determine the time of contact 
of the spermatozoa and the ovum are therefore ex- 
ceedingly variable, and they may favor an earlier 
impregnation of the germ in cases of copulation tow- 
ard the close of the period of heat than would be pro- 
duced in other cases when copulation took place at 
the beginning of the period. 

Experiments with dogs and rabbits show that sev- 
eral days may elapse after copulation before the sper- 

^ Dalton's " Human Physiology," p. 562. 
2 Ibid., p. 561. 



302 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 



matozoa come in contact with the ovum to produce 
impregnation/ 

At a meeting of the Agricultural Society of Se- 
verac, on the 3d of July, 1826, M. Charles Girou de 
Buzareingues proposed "to divide a flock of sheep 
into two equal parts, so that a greater number of 
males or females, at the choice of the proprietor, 
should be produced from each of them. Two of the 
members of the society offered their flocks to become 
the subjects of his experiments," ^ the results of which 
are given in the following table. 

The principle of division was to place young rams 
with strong, well-fed ewes, for ewe-lambs, and a ma- 
tured, vigorous ram with weaker ewes, for ram-lambs. 

The first experiment gave the following results : 



FlocTc for Female Lambs served by 
two Jiams, one Jif teen Ifonths and 
the other nearly tioo Years old. 



Age of Mothers. 


SEX OP LAMBS. 


Male. 


Female. 


Two years 

Three years 

Four years 


14 

16 

5 


28 
29 
21 


Total 


35 

18 


76 
8 


Five years and 
over 




Total 


53 


84 









There were three twin-births in this 
flock. 



Flock for Male Lambs served 
two Strong Rams, one four a 
the other five Years old. 



Age of Mothers. 



Two years . . 
Three years . 
Four years.. 



Total 

Five years and 
over 



Total 



SEX OF LAMBS. 



80 



Female. 



55 



N"o twin-births in this flock. 



^ " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. ii., p. 465 ; Car- 
penter's " Human Physiology," p. 967. 

^ The experiments were published in the *' Annales de I'Agricul- 
ture Fran9aise," vols, xxxvii., xxxviii., and a summary from which we 
quote will be found in the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. i., 
May, 1828, p. 63. 



SEX. 303 

In the second experiment the ewes were divided 
into three sections. 

The first section included the strongest ewes from 
four to 'Q.ve years old, which were better fed than the 
others. It was served by four ram-lambs, about six 
months old. 

In the second section were the weakest ewes, 
under four or above five years old. They were 
served by '' two strong rams," more than three years 
old. 

The third section consisted of ewes belonging to 
the shepherds, "which are in general stronger and 
better fed than those of the master, because their 
owners are not always particular in preventing them 
from trespassing on the cultivated lands that are not 
inclosed." These ewes were served by the same rams 
as section two. 

Males. Females. 

The first section gave .... 15 25 

" second " " . . ' . 26 14 

" third '' " .... 10 12 

In the first section were two twin-births — four 
females. In the second and third there were also two 
— ^three males and one female. 

These experiments were considered almost conclu- 
sive ; but it will be observed that the results are not 
more remarkable for the range of variations presented 
in the relative numbers of each sex than were ob- 
tained in my experience in different years with ani- 
mals under the same management. 

The number of animals under observation in these 
experiments is too smaU to give the results any value 



304 



PRINCIPLES OP STOCK-BREEDING. 



as a basis of generalization, and the same objection 
may be made to the cases collected by Hofacker and 
Sadler, which we quote from Cai-penter : ^ 

" The following table expresses the average results 
obtained by M. Hofacker in Germany, and by M. 
Sadler in Britain, between which it will be seen that 
there is a manifest correspondence, silthoughhoth were 
drawn from a too limited series of observations. The 
numbers indicate the proportion of male births to a 
hundred females, under the several conditions men- 
tioned in the first column : " 



Father younger than mother . 
" and mother of equal age 
" older by 1 to 6 years 
(( u (( 6 " 9 " 

<( a <( g a 28 " 

" " " 18 and more 

Father younger than mother . 
" and mother of equal age 
" older by 1 to 6 years 

(( u a g 14 -j^-j^ u 

a (( (( 11 (' 1A '( 



(( 



u 



11 " 16 

16 and more 



Hofacker. 

90.6 

90.0 

103.4 

124.7 

143.7 

200.0 

Sadler. 

86.5 

94.8 

103.7 

126.7 

147.7 

163.2 



" From the statistics recorded in the peerages and 
baronetages of the United Kingdom, the proportion 
of male to a hundred female births is stated by l^a- 
pier to be as below : " ^ 



890 parents of equal age 

276 fathers 1 year older than mothers 



91.8 
101.3 



1 " Human Physiology," p. 1015. 

2 Scientific Farmer^ 18*76, p. 180, credited by Dr. Sturtevant to the 
Journal of the Anthropological Society^ IBGY, vol. cxlx. 



SEX. 



305 



812 fathers 2- 3 years older than mothers 



101.8 



211 




4- 6 




a 




(( 


, 


, 


108.0 


200 




6-10 




u 




(( 


, 


, 


130.1 


168 




10-16 




a 




u 


» » 


^ 


144.3 


120 




17-25 




n 




(( 


^ ^ 


. 


189.7 


80 




26-32 




n 




n 


, , 


, 


125.6 


45 




33-40 




(( 




u 


, , 


, 


112.6 


18 




40-50. 




u 




(mother under 25) 


115.4 


13 




40-50 




u 




( 


" over 


25) 


91.6 






MOTHEES 


OLDER THAX FATHEES. 






88 mothers from 


1- 3 


fears 


older 


, 


, , 




94.3 


77 


u 


(( 


3- 5 


(( 


a 


, 


, 


, 


88.8 


66 


u 


U 


5-10 


u 


(( 


. 


« < 




77.1 


43 


(( 


(( 


10-15 


u 


(t 


, 


, , 


, 


60.6 


17 


(( 


(( 


15-22 


(( 


u 


. 


, , 




48.3 



Notwithstanding the apparent uniform increase in 
the proportion of male births in the cases in which 
the father is from six to twenty-five years older than 
the mother, it would not be safe to attribute the vari- 
ation to age alone. 

In the first 1,189 cases in the table, in which the 
parents are of equal age, or the fathers are from one 
to six years older than the mothers, the average pro- 
portion of male births is below the general average, 
as shown by other statistics ; but, as the fathers have 
the advantage of the mothers in age in 799 of these 
cases, the proportion of male births should be consid- 
erably higher. Instead of comparing the special cases 
collected with one another, would it not be more satis- 
factory to compare them with the average of all cases 
that can be obtained, without reference to age ? 

In the first 1,189 cases above noticed there would 

be, according to the table, 693 male children and 596 
14 



306 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 



female children, or in the proportion of 99.5 males to 
100 females. 

Of the children born in Great Britain it is said 
that there are 104.75 males to 100 females/ the pro- 
portion of males being more than fi^e per cent, larger 
than in the cases under consideration. 

The following table, from the report of the Census 
Commissioners of Ireland for 1841,' gives the propor- 
tion of sexes in the largest number of cases in which 
the relative ages of the parents are stated, that has 
come to my knowledge : 

Table showing the Fecundity of Irish Marriages from 1830 to 

1841. 



9 ® 

If 


AGES. 




it 


NUMBER OF 
CHILDEEN. 


Total 

of 

Children. 


iij 


III 


Is 


Husbands. 


Wives. 


Males., 


Females. 


0, o 




under IT 


under 17 


34 


661 


872 


821 


1,698 


106 


2.56 


o& 


17 to 25 


17 to 25 


42 


159,761 


195,895 


185,913 


381,808 


105 


2.39 


g"^ 


26 " 35 


26 " 35 


61 


58,290 


63,143 


60,012 


123,155 


105 


2.11 


t'n 


36 " 45 


36 " 45 


81 


3,354 


1,665 


1,480 


3,145 


112 


.94 


fii 


46 " 55 


46 " 55 


101 


428 


44 


51 


95 


86 


.22 


above 55 


above 55 


110 


186 


11 


6 


17 


183 


.12 


Totals and 


averages . 




222,630 


251,630 


248,283 


509,913 


105 


2 29 








p( 


17 to 25 


under 17 


33 


9,847 


13,203 


12.558 


25,761 


105 


2.62 




26 " 35 


j under 17 
\ 17 to 25 


47 


4,066 


5,171 


5,074 


10,245 


102 


2.52 


51 


128,713 


159,081 


150,090 


809,171 


106 


2.40 


fe 




( under 17 


57 


813 


402 


873 


775 


108 


2.48 


S . 


36 " 45 


\ 17 to 25 


61 


14,825 


17,478 


16,270 


33,748 


107 


2.35 


^/^ 




26 " 35 


71 


15,596 


15,466 


14,380 


29,846 


107 


1.91 






under 17 


67 


36 


87 


37 


74 


100 


2.05 


i-^ 


46 " 55 


17 to 25 


71 


1,516 


1,615 


1,564 


3,179 


103 


2.10 


t-S 


26 " 35 


81 


2,469 


2,109 


2,011 


4,120 


105 


1.67 




36 " 45 


91 


1,335 


493 


445 


938 


111 


.70 


^^ 




■ under 17 


72 


IS 


8 


15 


23 


53 


1.28 


M 




17 to 25 


76 


240 


198 


209 


407 


95 


1.69 




above 55 


\ 26 " 35 


a5 


461 


277 


273 


550 


101 


1.19 


C3 




36 " 45 


95 


429 


107 


79 


186 


135 


.43 


W 




\ 46 " 55 


105 


295 


14 


15 


29 


93 


.10 


Totals and 


averages 




179,659 


215,659 


203,393 


419,052 


106 


2 38 













^ " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. ii., p. 478. 

^ Copied from Walford's " Insurance Cyclopaedia," vol. iii., p. 189. 



SEX. 



307 



Table showing thk Fecundity of Irish Marriages from 1830 to 
184:l.—{Co7iiinued.) 



If 


AGES. 


It 

a -s 




NtTJrBEE OP 
CHILDREN. 


Total 

of 

ChUdren. 


u 
n 


lit 


Husbands. 


Wives. 


Males. 


Females. 


i". 


u 




f 17 to 25 


38 


757 


996 


944 


1,940 


105 


2.56 


■3 




26 '^ 35 


47 


92 


90 


97 


187 


93 


2.03 


under 17 


\ 36 " 45 


57 


4 












1 




46 " 65 


67 


1 
















above 55 


72 


1 


2 




2 






^« 




f 26 to 35 
J 36 " 45 
T 46 " 55 
i above 55 


51 


21,287 


21,934 


21,088 


43,022 


104 


2.02 


n 


17 to 25 


61 
71 


744 
35 


372 

10 


398 
8 


770 
18 


93 

125 


1.03 
.51 


u 




76 


3 














( 86 to 45 


71 


2,413 


1,225 


1,147 


2,372 


107 


.98 


^ 


26 " 85 


J. 46 " 55 


81 


145 


40 


84 


74 


118 


.51 


is 




1 above 55 


85 


12 












S 


Ott 11 AK 


( 46 to 55 


91 


227 


49 


39 


83 


128 


.39 


^ 


^^ ^5 1 above 55 


95 


15 


3 




3 






^ 


46 " 55 " 55 


105 


52 


2 


3 


5 


67 


.10 


Totals and averages 


25,788 


24,723 


23,758 


48,481 


104 


1.88 


General totals and averages. . 


428,077 


502,012 


475,434 


977,446 


105 


2.28 



When the parents are of equal age, of 509,913 children there 

are 105 males to 100 females. 
When the father is older than the mother, of 419,052 children 

there are 106 males to 100 females. 
When the mother is older than the father, of 48,481 children 

there are 104 to 100 females. 

Witli the exception of a few instances, where the 
number of children is small, it will be observed that 
the range of variation in the proportion of the sexes, 
under the different conditions mentioned in the table, 
is exceedingly small in comparison with the variations 
in the preceding tables. 

M. Martegoute states that at the sheepfold of the 
Dishlej Mauchamp merinos of M. Yiallet, at Blanc, 
the rams at the commencement of the rutting-season 
got more males than females ; when the ewes came in 



308 PRINCIPLES OP STOCK-BREEDING. 

heat in greater numbers, and tlie vigor of tlie ram. 
was diminished, he got a larger proportion of fe- 
males; and toward the close, when the ewes to be 
served were less numerous, the vigor of the ram be- 
ing restored, the procreation of males was again in 
excess. 

He concludes also that " the ewes that have pro- 
duced the female lambs are, on an average, of a 
weight superior to those that produced the males; 
and thej evidently lose more in weight than these 
last during the suckling period ; " and that " the ewes 
that produce males weigh less, and do not lose in 
nursing so much as the others." ' 

I am not aware of any facts to corroborate this 
statement of M. Martegoute, which is not in accord- 
ance with the experience of breeders generally. 

It may be that the relative age and vigor of the 
parents has an influence, in connection with other con- 
ditions, in determining sex ; but that the influence is 
so marked as to be of any practical utility in breeding 
the sexes at will remains yet to be proved. 

The uniformity in the proportion of the sexes, 
shown by statistics, in different localities, representing 
a great variety in the conditions of life, indicates the 
existence of some general law that determines the sex 
of offspring that is constant in its action. 

The proportion of males to a hundred females in 
the different countries of Europe is reported as fol- 
lows : ^ 

* " Principles of Breeding," by Goodale, pp. 91, 92. 
' " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. ii., p. 478, and 
** Insurance Cyclopaedia," by Walford, vol. i., p. 315. 



SEX. 



309 



Great Britain . 
France 

Prussia 

Sweden 

"Wtlrtemberg . 

Westphalia and the Rhenish provinces 

Bohemia 

Netherlands 

Saxony and Silesia 

Austria 

Sicily .... 

Brandenburg 

Mecklenburg . 

Mailand 

Eussia .... 

Jews in Prussia 

*' " Breslau . 

" " Leghorn 

Christians " " . 
Austria, 1830-'4T . 
Baden, 1835-'55 
Bavaria, 1835-'51 . 
Belgium, 1841-'50 
Denmark, 1835-'49 . 
England, 1843-'52 
France, 181'r-'54 . 
Hanover, 1824-'43 
Holland, 1840-'53 . 
Norway, 1801-'55 
Prussia, 1816-'52 . 
Saxony, 1834-'49 
Scotland, 1855-'56 . 
Sweden, 1T49-1855 . 



104.Y5 

( 106.55 

i 103.38 

j 106.94 

( 105.90 

104.72 

105.69 

105.86 

105.38 

106.44 

106.05 

106.10 

106.18 

106.27 

107.07 

107.61 

108.91 

112.00 

114.00 

120.00 

104.00 

106.6 

105.9 

106.3 

105.2 

105.5 

104.7 

106.2 

106.5 

106.5 

105.9 

105.7 

106.5 

105.3 

104.4 



310 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 



According to M. Quetelet, tlie proportion of sexes 
in Europe is 106 males to 100 females.' 

The statements in tlie next table were compiled 
by Dr. H. B. Baker, Secretary of the State Board of 
Health, Lansing, Michigan : ^ 





Period 
(Dates inclusive). 


BIBTHS. 


Total 
Births. 


Unlmown 
Sex. 


Male, to 




Males. 


Femalet. 


Females. 


Micliigan 


Year ending 
April 5, 1863. 
Eemaining 9 
months 1868. 

1869 

1870. 

1871 

1872 
1869 to 1872 

1853 " 1872 
1820 " 1840 
1861 " 1873 

1854 " 1872 
1854 " 1872 
1857 " 1870 
1849 " 1853 
1865 " 1870 
1856 " 1871 


10,088 

10,133 
14,071 
13,846 
13,596 
14,311 
55.824 

121,745 
74,790 

116,212 
16,145 
42,674 
45,576 
73,459 

107,856 
84,488 


9,284 

9,003 
12,953 
12,726 
12,327 

-13,312 
51,323 

113,443 
69,597 

105,089 
15,351 
40,387 
42,H32 
68,665 

101,805 
76,797 


19,544 

19,171 

27,093 

26,663 

25,992 

27,706 

107,454 

235,548 

144,387 

221.301 

81,496 

83,210 

88,994 

142,a30 

209,989 

162,510 


172 

35 
64 
91 

69 

83 

807 

860 

'i49 
436 
706 
328 
1,227 




it 


108.6 


^^ 


112.5 
108.5 


u 


108.8 


u 


110.2 


,^ 


107.5 

108.7 


Few York City. . . . 
Philadelphia 

Providence 

Ehode Island 

Vertnoiit . . . . 


107.3 

107.46 

110.5 

105.2 

105.6 

106.1 


Massachusetts 

Connecticut 


106.9 
105.9 
110.0 


Total and average 


738,767 


685,389 


1,427,717 


3,563 


107.8 


En f land. . . . 


1850 
1851 
1852 
1853 
1854 


:::::: 




593,422 
615,865 
624.012 
612,391 
634,4115 




104.2 




104.7 


ii 


T04.6 


(( 


105.1 


u 


104.4 








104.6 

















Yariations in the proportions of the sexes from 
unknown causes are of frequent occurrence ; but their 
limited range and slight divergence from the average 
only show the constancy of the general law under a 
great variety of conditions. 

" In France, during forty-four years, the male to 



1 Churchill's 
ogy,"p. 1014. 



Midwifery," p. 140; Carpenter's "Human Physiol- 
Michigan "Pifth Registration Report," ISll, pp. 93-112. 



SEX. 



311 



the female birtlis have been as 106.2 to 100; but 
during this period it has occurred five times in one 
department and six times in another that the female 
births have exceeded the male." ^ 

" In some districts of ISTorway," according to Prof. 
Faye, "there has been, during a decennial period, a 
steady deficiency of boys, while in others the opposite 
condition has existed." ^ 

It is worthy of notice that the excess of male over 
female births is diminished in the case of illegitimate 
children. 

Mr. Babbage has compiled the following table : ^ 





LEGITIMATE BIETHS. 


ILLBSITIMATE BIETHS. 


PLACES. 


Number 
observed. 


Males to 100 
Females. 


Numbsr 
observed. 


Malei to 100 
Females. 




9,656,135 

1,059,055 

8,672.251 

151,169 

25,064 


106.57 
104.45 
106.09 
104.71 
107.07 


673,047 
51,309 

212,804 
19.950 
2,735 


104.84 


Naples 


102.67 


Prussia . . , 


102 78 


Westphalia 


100.39 


Montpellier 


100.81 






Mean 




105.75 




102,50 









In England, according to Walford, from 1851 to 
1869 the proportion of males in illegitimate births 
was smaller than in the case of legitimate births in 
the years 1851, '53, '56, '57, '60, '62, and 65, and 
larger in the years 1852, '54, '55, '58, '59, '61, '63, '64, 
^66, '67, '68, and '69, a preponderance being in favor 
of an increase of males in illegitimate births.* 



^ " Descent of Man," vol. i., p. 291. 

2 Darwin, loc. cit., p. 291. 

3 Dunglison's " Physiology," vol. ii., p. 411. 

^ Walford's " Insurance Cyclopaedia," vol. i., p. 315. 



312 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 



Of otlier countries the following statistics are 
given : 



PLACES. 



Legitimate 


Ulegitimate 


Mnlei 


Malei 


to 100 Females. 


to 100 Females. 


106.0 


103.1 


106.7 


104.8 


104.5 


103 7 


106.2 


104.2 


106.0 


103.5 


104. T 


103.1 


105.7 


100.4 


104.7 


100.4 


105.8 


103.6 


103.8 


103.4 


109.0 


101.5 


105.0 


108.8 


106.2 


105.9 


107.1 


100.8 


102.8 


107.81 



Prussia (1820-'34) 

France 

Naples (1819-''24) 

Austria 

Wiirtemberg- 

Sweden 

Bohemia 

Westphalia (1809-'ll).. 
East Prussia and Posen 

Paris 

Geneva (1814-'33) 

Amsterdam 

Leipsic 

MontpeUier (1772-'92). . 
Frankfort-on-the-Main. , 



Amsterdam and Frankfort, with England, seem to 
form exceptions to the rule indicated bj the statistics 
of other localities. 

In Michigan the proportion of males to 100 females 
in 1870 was 108.1 for illegitimate, and 108.8 for all 
births ; and in 1871 it was 80.0 for illegitimate, and 
110.29 for all births.'^ 

In Massachusetts, for twenty-three years, the pro- 
portion of male to female births, of all classes, was 
107.Y to 100, while for illegitimate for the same pe- 
riod it was 93.4 to 100.' 

It has been stated that "the first children of a 
marriage consist of a greater number of females and 
fewer males, in the proportion, according to Burdach, 
of 53 male births to 100 females," * and this may per- 

^ "Insurance Cyclopaedia," vol. i., p. 315. 

» Michigan "Fifth Kegistration Keport," IS'Jl, pp. "93, 94. 

3 Scientific Farmer^ 1876, p. 166. 

^ " Cyclopccdia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. ii., p. 4*78. 



SEX. 313 

haps serve to explain the preponderance of female 
births among illegitimate children. 

Statistics of the relative numbers of the sexes at 
the time of birth among domestic animals have not 
been published to any considerable extent, and the 
data that are needed for a satisfactory discussion of 
this subject remain in the hands of individual breed- 
ers. ^ 

The most extended collection of statistics relating 
to this subject within my knowledge has been made 
by Mr. Darwin/ from which the following statements 
are compiled : 

From the limited number of cases under discus- 
sion, and the manner in which the facts have been 
collected, the real proportion of the sexes at birth 
may not be correctly represented by these statistics. 

Still-born animals, and those that die at an early 
age, are not as a rule forwarded by breeders to the 
press for publication. Moreover, the records are usu- 
ally made only by those who are interested in making 
sales of breeding-stock; and their methods of man- 
agement, or the selections made for their own pur- 
poses, may have an influence in modifying the results. 

Mr. Tegetmeier tabulated for Mr. Darwin from 
the "Eacing Calendar" "the births of race-horses 
during a period of twenty-one years, viz., from 1846 
to 1867 — 1849 being omitted, as no returns were that 
year published. The total births have been 25,560, 
consisting of 12,763 males and 12,797 females, or in 
the proportion of 99.7 males to 100 females. ... In 
1856 the male horses were as 107.1, and in 1867 as 
* " Descent of Man," vol. i., pp. 293-300. 



314: PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

only 92.6 to 100 females. In the tabulated returns 
the proportions vary in cycles, for the males exceeded 
the females during six successive years, and the fe- 
males exceeded the males during two periods each of 
four years." ^ 

A writer in the London Field (probably Mr. 
Tegetmeier) in 1868 makes the statement that, " dur- 
ing the past four years," 3,241 fillies against 3,102 
colts have been produced.^ 

Of cattle, Mr. Darwin " received returns from nine 
gentlemen, of 982 births, too few to be trusted. These 
consisted of 4Y7 bull-calves and 605 cow-calves ; i. e., 
in the proportion of 94.4 males to 100 females." ' 

Mr. C. ]^. Bement gives the record of the birth 
of 62 animals in 1839-43, of which 36 were males 
and 26 females — a proportion of 138.4 males to 100 
females. 

" In another record of Short-Horn cattle, 54 buU 
and 52 cow calves were produced — a proportion of 
103.8 male to 100 female calves." And "in another 
case, out of 673 entries of Short-Horn births, 235 of 
the calves were male, and 238 female — a proportion 
here of 98.3 males to 100 females." * 

Mr. Darwin " received returns from four gentle- 

* I^c. cit., pp. 293, 294. In a note, p. 293, Mr. Darwin says: "Dur- 
ing 1866, 809 male colts and 816 female colts were born, and 743 
mares failed to produce offspring. During 1867, 836 males and 902 
females were bom, and 794 mares failed." 

^ Country Oentleman, September, 1868, p. 190. 

3 Loc. cit., p. 295. 

^ Scientific Farmer, 1876, p. 166; the first item from the American 
Journal of Medical Science, October, 1845, p. 520, and the last two from 
the National Live-Stock Journal, 1872, p. 21, and 1874, p. 375. 



SEX. 315 

men in England, wlio have bred lowland sheep, chiefly 
Leicesters, during the last ten or sixteen years. They 
amount altogether to 8,965 births, consisting of 4,407 
males and 4,558 females, that is in the proportion of 
96.7 males to 100 females. With respect to Cheviot 
and Black-faced sheep," he "received returns from 
six breeders, two of them on a large scale, chiefly for 
the years 1867-'69, but some of the returns extending 
back to 1862. The total number recorded amounts 
to 50,685, consisting of 25,071 males and 25,614 
females, or in the proportion of -97.9 males to 100 
females. If we take the English and Scotch returns 
together, the total number amounts to 59,650, consist- 
ing of 29,478 males and 30,172 females, or as 97.7 to 
100." ' 

So far as numbers alone are concerned, the statis- 
tics of the sexes of sheep are more satiafactory than 
of any other class of domestic animals ; but there are 
other facts that will undoubtedly modify the results 
obtained. 

In the human family, and also in many instances 
with the lower animals, it has been found that the 
males, at birth, are considerably in excess of the fe- 
males. 

The death-rate of males, however, at an early age, 
is decidedly greater than it is in females, so that the 
differences at birth are gradually diminished. 

Maitland, in his " History of London," 1739, says : 
" Erom the year 1657 to that of 1738, during which time 
of eighty years there appear to have been christened 
619,187 males and 585,334 females, and buried 994,- 

1 " Descent of Man," vol. i., p. 295. 



316 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BPvEEDINa 

656 males and 965,294 females, which in the christen- 
ing amount to 33,853 more males than females, which 
is five and a half per cent, in favor of the former ; and 
in the burials 29,358, which is likewise three per cent, 
in favor of the males." ' 

" For every 100 still-born females, we have in sev- 
eral countries from 134.9 to 144.9 still-born males." 
And, also, " during the first four or five years of life, 
more male children die than females. For example, 
in England, during the first year, 126 boys die for 
every 100 girls — a proportion which in France is still 
more unfavorable." ^ 

In Michigan, for the year 1871, the deaths of 
children under one year of age were 128.1 males to 
100 females ; and of those under one month, including 
still-born, 138.3 males died to 100 females; and in 
1870 the proportion was 121.34 to 100 females for the 
first year.^ 

Carpenter states that there are on the average three 
still-born males to two females ; and that, of deaths 
during early infancy, the proportion of males to 
females is four to three during the first two months." 

"Several great breeders in Scotland," says Mr. 
Darwin, "who annually raise some thousand sheep, 
are firmly convinced that a larger proportion of males 
than of females die during the first one or two 



^ Walford's " Insurance Cyclopaedia," vol. iii., p. 204. 

' Darwin, loc. cit, p. 292, on the authority of the British and Foreign 
Meclico-Chirurgical Review, April, 1867, p. 343. See also article "Fe- 
male Life " in Walford's " Insurance Cyclopaedia," vol. iii., p. 203, etc. 

3 Michigan "Fifth Registration Report," 1871, pp. 101, 170, 174. 

* " Human Physiology," p. 1015. 



SEs:. 317 

years ; ^' ^ and it is at least probable tbat this is true 
with otber classes of animals. 

If with sheep the enumeration of the sexes takes 
place at the time of castration of the rams, several 
months after birth, which is the common practice, the 
proportion of males, as pointed out by Mr. Darwin, 
would be too small. This element of error should not 
be overlooked in statistics of animals derived from 
published records of births, as the animals that die 
young, including the still-bom, are not likely to be 
recorded ; and of these the largest proportion will in 
all probability be males. 

M. Tegetmeier tabulated for Mr. Darwin the births 
of a large number of greyhounds that had, during a 
period of twelve years, been sent to the Field news- 
paper. 

^' The recorded births have been 6,878, consisting 
of 3,605 males and 3,273 females ; that is, in the pro- 
portion of 110.1 males to 100 females. The greatest 
fluctuations occurred in 1864, when the proportion 
was as 95.3 males, and in 1867, as 116.3 males to 100 
females." ^ 

" With respect to fowl," Mr. Darwin " received 
only one account, namely, that out of 1,001 chickens 
of a highly-bred stock of Cochins, reared during eight 
years by Mr. Stretch, 487 proved males and 514 fe- 
males ; i. e., as 94.7 to 100. 

"In regard to domestic pigeons, there is good evi- 
dence that the males are produced in excess, or that 
their lives are longer ; for these birds invariably pair, 

* "Descent of Man," vol. i., p. 294. 
3 Ibid. 



318 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

and single males, as Mr. Tegetmeier informs me, can 
always be purchased cheaper than females." ^ 

As in fowls and pigeons, the sexes are not readily- 
distinguished at an early age. Any excess in the 
death-rate of either sex would, as in the cases already 
referred to, have an influence on the results obtained. 

Mr. Darwin has also collected data that render it 
highly probable that the males, at birth, predominate 
among birds, fishes, and insects.' 

The influence of wars, famines, and epidemics, 
upon the birth-rate of communities is well marked 
in the statistics of population; but the direction in 
which the influence is exerted is not always the same, 
and in some instances is entirely unexpected. In the 
case of wars and of severe famines the birth-rate is 
diminished; while in famines of moderate severity, 
and in epidemics, the birth-rate is frequently increased. 

When the birth-rate is diminished by war or fam- 
ine for a given period, there is as a rule a decided in- 
crease in the period following that may more than 
compensate for the previous diminution. 

Doubleday, in his "True Law of Population," 
says : " There are numerous instances where the oc- 
currence of misfortune and consequent privations have 
given famihes to those who were childless in their 
prosperity ; and, as elucidating the same law, we may 
adduce another fact, well known to medical persons, 
which is, the extraordinary tendencies to jprojpagation 
evinced hy hoih sexes when semi-convolescentj after en- 
feebling and attenuating epidemics, such as fevers, 

1 " Descent of Man," vol. i., p. 296. 
^ Ibid., pp. 296-307. 



SEX. 319 

pestilenceSy and plagues, and the consequent extraor- 
dinary rapidity with which population recovers it- 
seK in those countries w^here the plague, the marsh- 
fever, or famines, which cause many of these epidem- 
ics, have made havoc." ^ 

These influences have been considered in the chap- 
ter on " Fecundity," but they are of particular inter- 
est among the causes that determine the proportion of 
the sexes. 

Dr. H. B. Baker has shown that the influence of 
Ihe War of the Revolution and the War of 1812 are 
indicated in the statistics of Michigan as late as 18T0, 
as well as the influence of the war of 1861-65,'' and it 
appears that the diminished birth-rate during these 
wars was accompanied by an increased proportion of 
male births. 

It has been stated that " certain observations made 
by Yillerme, of Paris, and by Dr. Emerson, of Phila- 
delphia, go to show that certain causes, as great heat 
of summer, overworking and underfeeding, prevalence 
of epidemics, illegitimacy, in short, whatever tends to 
depress the physical and moral powers, tends also to 
diminish fecundity, and at the same time to reduce 
the excess of male births ; that these causes may oper- 
ate so as even to produce an excess of females." ' 

Dr. John Stockton-Hough has also made the state- 
ment that, " under ordinary circumstances, the greater 

* Walford's "Insurance Cyclopsedia," vol. iii., p. 189. 

2 "Statistics of Michigan," 1870, pp. xix.-xxi. {See also "United 
States Census," Mortality, 1860, p. 520.) 

2 "Registration Report of Kentucky," 1853, p. 119; as quoted in 
Michigan "Fourth Registration Report," 1870, p. 79. 



320 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

the proportion of males in births the greater the fe- 
cundity." ^ 

These generalizations appear to have been made 
without sufficient evidence, and the statistics relied 
upon in support of them are susceptible, in many in- 
stances, of a different interpretation. 

"We have already seen that depressing influences, 
in many cases, are favorable to fecundity; and the 
statistics collected by Dr. H. B. Baker seem to show 
that "causes tending to increase the birth-rate tend 
also to increase the proportion of female offspring, 
this being equivalent to decreasing the proportion of 
males." " 

Dr. Emerson, in the paper referred to, has appar- 
ently shown that the cholera in 1832, in Philadelphia 
and in Paris, diminished the proportion of male births 
for the year 1833, and that this excess is most marked 
in the period of the year nine months after its " most 
fatal ravages." ' 

A reexamination of the statistics used by Dr. 
Emerson has been made by Dr. Baker, who shows 
that the birth-rate was also increased in this epidemic ; 
and he adds evidence of a similar character from the 
Pegistrar-General's report, in regard to the influence 
of cholera in England in 1854.* 

The statistics of 1,42T,Y19 births in JSTew York 
City, Philadelphia, Providence, Yermont, Massachu- 

* FMladelpMa Medical Times^ December, ISYS, p. 193. 
2 Michigan "Fourth Registration Report," ISYO, p. Y8 ; Michigan 
"Fifth Registration Report," 1871, p. 103. 

' American Journal of the Medical Society^ July, 1848, pp. 78-85. 
4 Michigan " Fifth Registration Report," 1871, pp. 96-99. 



SEX. 321 

Betts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Michigan, dur- 
ing a series of years, as compiled by Dr. Baker, show 
that in 133 cases, of from 1,300 to 38,259 births ac- 
cording to year and locality, an increase in the birth- 
rate gave a decreased proportion of males, or a de- 
crease in the birth-rate gave an increase of males; 
while 48 cases, on the same basis, were exceptional 
and 7 doubtful.* 

Statistics of the births for 1862-65 inclusive, in 
the same localities, show an increase of males, with a 
decreased birth-rate, resulting from the war, with the 
single exception of Connecticut, where there was a 
slight decrease in male births and an increased birth- 
rate.'' 

In these cases, it should be observed, the increase 
or decrease in the proportion of males seems to be asso- 
ciated with a decrease or increase of the birth-rate when 
compared with the average for the locality ; that is to 
say, the causes that apparently diminish or increase 
the birth-rate in a given locality seem likewise to in- 
crease or diminish the proportion of males in that 
locality. 

It does not, however, follow from this that, in 
cases of remarkable fecundity, either of individuals or 
communities, there should be an excessive predomi- 
nance of females, or that an unusual excess in the pro- 
portion of males is to be found in cases in which there 
is a lack of fecundity, as the conditions involved in 
such cases may be quite different from those that pro- 

1 Michigan "Fifth Registration Report," 1871, pp. 104-110. 
3 Ibid., 1871, p. 111. 



322 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

duce variations in tlie birth-rate, or in tlie proportions 
of the sexes in a given locality. 

The data for a satisfactory discussion of the rela- 
tions of fecundity, in itself considered, to the deter- 
mination of sex, are unfortunately wanting.^ 

As to the proportions of the sexes in plural 
births, the statistics are quite limited. In 1852, ac- 
cording to the registrar-general's report, "in 6,036 
cases women bore two living children at a birth. In 
3,58Y of the above cases the children were of the 

* According to Walford (" Insurance Cyclopaedia," vol. iii., p. 193), 
the women of England, taken collectively, are more prolific than the 
women of Scotland; 1,000 English women, aged from fifteen to fifty- 
five, bearing annually 123 registered children, and 1,000 Scotch women 
bearing 120 children, the proportion of males to females being, ac- 
cording to the statistics already given, 104.7 to 100 for the former, 
and 105.3 to 100 for the latter. 

In the vital statistics of seventeen European countries, compiled by 
the Belgian Government in 1866, under the supervision of M. Quetelet, 
it is stated that " the most remarkable rate of fecundity is shown in 
Russia, and especially in the single year under observation (1858), 
when it was nearly twice as high as reported in France " (Statistical 
Journal^ vol. xxxi., p. 146 ; quoted in " Insurance Cyclopaedia," vol. i., 
p. 313). 

The proportion of males to 100 females in Russia for the year men- 
tioned was 104.9, while the births in France for the same year are not 
given. The details of such fragmentary statistics are not sufficient to 
admit of any generalizations based upon them. 

Statistics in Michigan show that "the birth-rate is apparently 
smaller among persons of African descent and larger among Indians 
than among the white inhabitants of this State. It also shows, what 
has been noticed in the two preceding "Reports," that in the case 
where the birth-rate is largest there is the largest proportion of female 
children, and where the birth-rate is smallest there is the smallest pro- 
portion of female children " (Michigan " Sixth Registration Report," 
1872, p. 33). 



SEX. 323 

same sex, and in the remaining 2,169 only, of differ- 
ent sexes." ^ 

Of 457 cases of twins, collected by Churcliill, both 
children were males in 131 cases, both females in 146 
cases, and one male and one female in 179 cases.'' 

Of 56 cases of triplets, there were 3 boys in 18 
cases, 3 girls in 14 cases, 2 boys and 1 girl in 11 cases, 
1 boy and 2 girls in 9 cases, and in 4 cases the sex is 
not stated.^ 

Thirteen cases are reported of 4 children at one 
birth, of which there were 4 boys in 3 cases, 4 girls 
in 2 cases, 3 boys and 1 girl in 3 cases, 2 boys and 2 
girls in 1 case, 1 boy and 3 girls in 2 cases, and in two 
cases the sex is not stated.* 

In Michigan there were 389 cases of twins reported 
in 1870, and 298 cases in 1871, the proportion of males 
to 100 females being 107.14 in 1870, and 112.85 in 
1871.' 

It has generally been supposed that the production 
of twins was an indication of nnnsual fecundity ; but 
Dr. Duncan, who is a high authority on this subject, 
remarks that " the variation of the frequency of twin- 
births in different countries is so great as to remove 
all probability from the notion or belief that the 
greater or less frequency of twins shows greater or 
less general fertility." " 

* "Insurance Cyclopsedia," vol. i., p. 318. 
' " Theory and Practice of Midwifery," p. 402. 
^ "Insurance Cyclopaedia," vol. i., p. 318; vol. iii., p. 200. 
^ Ibid., vol. iii., pp. 200, 201. 

•^ Michigan "Fifth Registration Report," 1871, pp. 93, 94. 
® Duncan on " Fecundity ; " quoted in " Insurance Cyclopaedia," vol. 
iii., p. 195. 



324 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

It is frequently observed that in the offspring of 
individuals or families there are many more of one sex 
than of the other, so that the determination of the 
sex seems to depend upon some undefined peculiarity 
of the parent. 

Mr. Knight, from the examination of a limited 
number of facts of this kind, came to the conclusion 
that "the female parent gives the sex to the off- 
spring." And he says, "I have proved repeatedly 
that, by dividing a herd of thirty cows into three 
equal parts, I could calculate with confidence upon a 
larger majority of females from one part, of males 
from another, and upon nearly an equal number of 
males and females from the remainder." * 

Sir John Sinclair states that " two cows produced 
fourteen females each in fifteen years, though the bull 
was changed every year. It is singular that, when 
they produced a bull-calf, it was in the same year." " 

Mr. Sherman reports a predominance of heifers in 
the get of a Jersey bull, the cows brought to him 
being selected as heifer-breeders. He also states that 
he has " a mare that has borne ten or eleven colts, but 
three of which were males. They were sired by five 
or six stallions." ' 

Mr. Wright, Yeldersley House, says that " one of 
his Arab mares, though put seven times to different 
horses, produced seven fillies." * 

^ "Philosophical Transactions," 1809; quoted in Walker on "In- 
termarriage," p. 228. 

s " Code of Agriculture," p. 89. 
3 Country Gentleman, ISlI, p. 366. 
* " Descent of Man," vol. i., p. 294. 



SEX. 325 

The record of nine cows, reported by Dr. Sturte- 
vant, " shows one set of three producing one bull and 
ten heifer calves ; another set produced nine bull and 
two heifer calves; while the remaining three pro- 
duced seven bull and six heifer calves." ^ 

Again, the predominance of one sex may be seen 
in the produce of an entire herd for a single year, 
which may, however, be the result of peculiarities of 
the season or other unobserved conditions. 

The Eev. W. D. Fox informed Mr. Darwin that, 
" in 1867, out of thirty-four calves born on a farm in 
Derbyshire, only one was a bull." " 

" At the sale of Mr. Atkins's Short-Horn herd at 
Milcote, in 1868, it was stated, to account for the large 
number of bull-calves, that twenty-three of the twenty- 
Ute cows, the last season, had produced bulls." ^ 

" Burdach states that those women who are most 
fruitful bear many more boys than girls, as in the 
following examples : " 





Boys. 


Girls. 


First woman bore , 


. 26 


6 


Second " " in first marriage . 


27 


3 


« 11 u a second " 


. 14 





Third " " . 


38 


15* 



These cases should, however, be classed under the 
head of idiosyncrasy of the parents, as there is not 
sufficient evidence to wan-ant the belief that the pre- 
dominance of males is the result of extraordinary 
fecundity. 

^ Scientific Farmer, 1876, p. 193. 

^ "Descent of Man," vol. i., p. 295. 

' Country Gentleman, September, 1868, p. 190. 

4 « Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. ii., p, 479. 



326 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

From the frequency of tlie cases in wliicli there is 
a greater number of one sex than of the other, in the 
produce of particular females, it has been assumed 
that the female parent had a greater influence in de- 
termining sex than the male. 

There are, however, several reasons why such a 
generalization should not be accepted as the expres- 
sion of a general law. Among domestic animals, al- 
though the male practically constitutes one-haK of 
the breeding-stock of a flock or herd, the females are 
by far the most numerous ; and it would follow from 
this superiority of numbers that the instances of sex 
determined by females would be observed in greater 
numbers than the instances of sex determined by 
males, if the power of influencing sex were the same 
in both males and females. 

Moreover, as the male is usually coupled with a 
number of females, any influence he might have in 
determining the sex of his offspring would not be so 
readily noticed as a similar influence on the part of 
the female. Again, if a particular male has a decided 
tendency to produce offspring of one sex, it is prob- 
able that among the many females with which he is 
coupled there might be found a number that have a 
tendency to produce offspring of the same sex. 

The sex of the offspring of these females would, 
therefore, be determined by the combined influence 
of both parents acting in the same direction. 

The statistics of such cases, unless great care is taken 
to obtain all the facts bearing upon them, might be 
readily interpreted as evidence that the female parent 
had the greatest influence upon the sex of the offspring. 



SEX. 327 

If there is a great predominance of one sex in the 
offspring of a female by the same male for a series of 
years, the result may have been produced through the 
influence of either parent, or by the combined influ- 
ence of both ; but it cannot, without other evidence, 
be attributed to the influence of the female alone. 

There are many well-authenticated cases which 
show that the female has not the exclusive preroga- 
tive of determining sex. 

" In the ' Philosophical Transactions ' for the year 
1Y87, mention is made of a gentleman who was the 
youngest of forty sons, all produced in succession 
from three different wives by one father, in Ireland." ^ 

One of my Ayrshire cows produced one bull and 
■G.Ye heifer calves, the bull being her first calf. Four 
of her daughters have produced fourteen bull-calves 
and one heifer — one of the daughters had seven bull- 
calves. These bull-calves, so far as I can trace them, 
differ greatly in the proportions of the sexes in their 
offspring, some of them getting a large proportion 
of females, in which they resemble their grandam, 
while others get a large proportion of males, in which 
they resemble their dams. 

These cases, although not sufl&cient to establish 
any law regulating the propagation of the sexes, seem 
to indicate that the sex may, perhaps, have been deter- 
mined by heredity, the line of descent being repre- 
sented by an alternation of generations in some cases, 
and directly in others. 

"A tomb at Ely, Cambridgeshire, England, has 

^ Morton's " Cyclopaedia of Agriculture,*' vol. i., p. 337 ; Walker on 
" Intennarriage," p. 229. 



328 PRINCIPLES OP STOCK-BPiEEDING. 

the following inscription : ^ Sacred to tlie memory of 
Eichard Worster, who died May 11, 1856, aged seven- 
tj-three years. Also to the memory of twenty-two 
sons and five danghters. . . . 

" The administrators of the estate of Heber C. 
Kimball, late Brigham Young's first counselor, filed 
in 1869, at Salt Lake City, a return of distributive 
shares, subject to the revenue tax, showing forty-one 
children — thirty sons and eleven daughters." ' 

A case is reported of a bull, eighteen months old, 
that got the first season ten heifers and two bulls.'* 

Another case is reported of a boar that "begat 
about seventy per cent, of males." And of another 
on the same farm that " got but three males out of 
twenty-seven pigs." * 

Mr. Blaine says : " Some dogs, some staUions, and 
some bulls, are remarked for getting a greater number 
of males than females ; while others are the parents 
of more females than males." * 

There are cases which seem to indicate that certain 
families may have a tendency to produce more of one 
sex than the other. 

Sir Anthony Carlisle says, " I am intimate with a 
family in which the father and mother had only two 
children, a son and a daughter, who each married into 
families not related to either party, and have had 
fifteen daughters without one son, viz., eight by the 
son and seven by the daughter." * 

* Walford's " Insurance Cyclopaedia," vol. iii., p. 157. 

^ Country Gentleman, March, 1870, p. 201. 

' National Live-^Stock Journal, ISTY, p. 101. 

^ Walker on " Intermarriage," p. 229. ® Ibid., p. 229. 



SEX. 329 

The predominance of one sex in tlie offspring of 
particular animals has been attributed to "prepo- 
tency." * 

This use of a term that has a definite meaning in 
regard to the transmission of qualities is objectionable, 
as it is liable to mislead those who are not aware of 
the special signification implied in this connection. 
An animal that is prepotent has a stronger influence 
than its mate in the transmission of its characters to 
their offspring. If we say that sex is influenced by 
prepotency, it might be inferred that the parent con- 
trolling the dominant characters of the offspring had 
also a predominant influence in determining sex ; but 
this is not the case, as many instances have come un- 
der my observation in which the general characters 
of a pure-bred male were uniformly stamped upon his 
offspring out of native and grade animals ; while some 
of the females would produce more males than fe- 
males, and others would produce more females than 
males. The influence of individuals upon sex would, 
therefore, seem to depend on something that is not 
included in the ordinary use of the term prepotency. 

There are several other theories in regard to the 
causes which determine sex that remain to be noticed ; 
but the material at command will not admit of an ex- 
tended discussion of their merits. 

" Sir Everard Home believed the ovum or germ 
previous to impregnation to be of no sex, but so 
formed as to be equally fitted to become either male 
or female, and that it is the process of impregnation 
which marks the sex and forms the generative organs ; 

^ JScieniific Farmer, 1876, p. 193. 
15 



330 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

that before the fourtli month the sex cannot be said 
to be confirmed, and that it will prove male or female 
as the tendency to the paternal or maternal type may- 
predominate." * 

It should be remarked in this connection that the 
testicles and the ovaries are formed from the same 
embryonic structure, and at an early stage of develop- 
ment it is impossible to determine which form of the 
generative apparatus is to be produced. According 
to this theory, the male offspring should resemble the 
father, and the female offspring should resemble the 
mother ; but we have seen that the transmission of 
resemblance is frequently from the father to the 
daughter, or from the mother to the son ; and some 
physiologists even claim that this is a law of heredity 
that has few exceptions. 

Dr. Flint has presented a provisional theory that 
does not differ essentially from that of Sir Everard 
Home. He says : " It may be that when just enough 
of the male element unites with the ovum to secure 
fecundation, or when it might be said that the female 
element predominates, the foetus is a female; and, 
when a greater number of spermatozoids unite with 
the vitellus, the male sex is determined. 

" Such an idea, however, is purely theoretical ; and 
the question of the determination of sex presents thus 
far hardly the shadow of a satisfactory explanation." ' 

Mr. "Wright's directions for breeding the sexes of 
chickens at wiU is apparently based upon the idea 

1 "Principles of Breeding," by Goodale, p. 89; Morton'3 "Cyclo- 
paedia of Agriculture," vol. i., p. 336. 

' " Physiology of Man " — " Generation," vol. v., p. 346. 



SEX. 331 

suggested by Dr. Flint, tliat the degree of impregna- 
tion determines the sex. 

Mr. Wright says : " 1. If a vigorous cockerel be 
mated with not more than three adult hens, the cocks 
almost always largely predominate in at least the early 
broods ; later this becomes uncertain. 2. If an adult 
cock be mated with not more than three pullets, the 
result is very uncertain, the one sex being as likely to 
occur as the other ; but usually there is a decided pre- 
dominance on one side, rather than equahty. 3. If 
an adult cock be mated with five or more pullets, the 
pullets are generally in excess; and what cockerels 
there are will be most numerous in the earlier eggs. 
4. Young birds or adult birds mated together are very 
uncertain ; but the fewer hens, and the more vigorous 
the stock, the greater is the proportion of cockerels, 
which are always more numerous in the earlier eggs 
of a season than the later." ^ 

As Mr. Wright, however, admits that " there will 
be numerous and startling exceptions " ^ to these rules, 
they can hardly be accepted as the expression of a 
general law. 

The theory presented by Dr. Flint appears to be 
in direct conflict with apparently well-authenticated 
facts observed among insects. In a hive of bees may 
be found a queen-bee (a perfect female), a number of 
drones (males), and the neuter workers (imperfect fe- 
males), which are by far the most numerous. It is 
well known, as first shown by Dzierzon, that an un- 
impregnated queen lays eggs that produce drones, and 

» "The niustrated Book of Poultry," p. 133. 
^ Loc. cit, p. 45. 



332 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

that tlie workers, althougli incapable of impregnation, 
may sometimes lay eggs that produce drones. Eggs 
producing females are, however, only laid by the queen, 
and then only after impregnation.^ It appears that 
all unimpregnated eggs produce males, and all im- 
pregnated eggs produce females — ^i. e., either workers 
or queens : and the male element of fertilization, in 
the case of bees, would seem, therefore, to be essential 
to the production of females only. 

The theory that sex is determined by the activity 
of the nutritive processes has been recently advocated 
by naturalists. 

Mrs. Mary Treat, in the American Naturalist^ 
has given the results of a large number of experi- 
ments with butterflies, showing that, if the larvae are 
not well fed before going into the chrysalis state, the 
perfect insects developed from them are males ; but, 
if the larvae are abundantly supplied with food, the 
perfect insects are females.'' 

In a paper communicated to the Philadelphia 
Academy, Mr. Gentry details a series of experiments 
with the larvae of various species of moths, the results 
of which agree with those obtained by Mrs. Treat 
with butterflies. Mr. Gentry arrives at the following 
conclusions : " 1. That males are the invariable result 
when the larvae are fed on diseased or innutritions 
food ; 2. That in the fall, when the leaves have not 
their usual amount of sap, males are generally pro- 
duced ; 3. That more males are produced late in the 

^ "The Dzierzon Theory," by Baron Berlepsch, pp. 13-36; "Hive 
and Honey-Bee," by Langstroth, pp. 40-45 ; and other works on the bee. 
^ Popular Science Monthly^ June, 1873, p. 252. 



SEX. 333 

season than females ; 4. That the sexes in earlj life 
cannot be distinguished, the change being brought 
about late in life by the conditions of nutrition." ' 

Mr. Thomas Meehan has made observations which 
seem to show that " sex in plants is the result of the 
grade of nutrition, the highest grades of nutrition or 
vitality producing the female sex, and the lower grades 
the male." ' 

These changes in the reproductive organs that are 
produced by conditions of nutrition appear to be 
analogous to those that determine the development of 
the reproductive organs of the queen-bee. 

If a queen is destroyed or removed from the hive, 
" the bees choose two or three from among the neuter 
eggs (producing workers) that have been deposited 
in their appropriate cells, and change these cells (by 
breaking down others around them) into royal cells, 
differing considerably in form, and of much larger 
dimensions ; and the larvae, when they come forth, 
are supplied with ' royal jelly ^^ an aliment of a very 
different nature from the ' bee-bread ' which is stored 
up for the nourishment of the workers, being of a 
pungent, stimulating character. After going through 
its transformations, the grub thus treated comes forth 
a perfect queen, differing from the ' neuter,' into which 
it would otherwise have changed, not only in the de- 
velopment of the generative apparatus, but also in the 
form of the body, the proportionate length of the 
wings, the shape of the tongue, jaws, and sting, the 
absence of the hollows on the thighs in which the 

^ Popular Science Monthly^ April, 1874, p. 762. 
2 Ibid., p. 761. 



334 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BKEEDING. 

pollen is carried, and the loss of tlie power to secrete 
wax. Thus, in acquiring the attributes peculiar to 
the perfect reproductive female, the insect loses those 
which distinguish the working population of the hive ; 
and, of this departure from its usual mode of develop- 
ment, the difference in the food with which it is sup- 
plied appears to be the only essential condition." ^ 

In the development of a queen from a worker 
larva, it does not appear to be necessary that the 
changed conditions, as to form of cell and nutriment, 
should be made at the earliest period of growth. 
Dzierzon says : " I have noticed that worker larvae, so 
far advanced that they nearly fiU their cells, will still 
be developed as perfect queens, if, before capping, 
the cell be somewhat enlarged and widened, and the 
larvae supplied with the appropriate pabulum." Baron 
Berlepsch adds, " Incredible as this at first seemed, I 
have found it, nevertheless, true." ' 

It is possible that the influence of heat and light 
upon the sex of plants, observed by Mr. Knight, may be 
owing to changes produced in the nutrition of the plant.' 

Mr. Knight says : " I can at any time succeed in 
causing several kinds of monoecious plants to produce 
solely male or solely female blossoms. If heat be, com- 
paratively with the quantity of light which the plant re- 
ceives, excessive, male flowers only appear ; but, if light 
be in excess, female flowers alone will be produced." * 

^ Carpenter's " Comparative Physiology," p. 163. 
^ " The Dzierzon Theory," by Baron Berlepsch, p. 45. 
3 " Comparative Physiology," p. 618. 

* " Physiological and Horticultural Papers," p, 358 ; quoted in JSd- 
mtijic Farmer^ 1876, p. 181. 



SEX. 335 

The relations of the function of nutrition to that 
of reproduction may perhaps explain some of the cases 
that haye been cited as evidence in favor of other 
theories ; and it may be that the determination of sex 
depends upon a number of conditions that are all inti- 
mately connected with the function of nutrition. 

Another theory has been recently presented by Mr. 
John R. Stuy vesant, of Poughkeepsie, 'New York, that 
is evidently based upon two assumptions, viz. : first, 
that the sex of the offspring depends entirely upon 
the female ; and, second, that every alternate egg is of 
the same sex. The cases given above are sufficient to 
show that these assumptions are without foundation, 
while the limited number of cases that have been pre- 
sented as evidence of the value of the system cannot 
be accepted as conclusive. Mr. Stuyvesant says : 
" My plan is simply this : if a cow has produced for 
her last caK a heifer, I do not allow her to be served 
the first time she comes in season, but let her run 
over until the second time, when she is served in the 
first part of her heat, and is immediately shut up by 
herself until it passes over. Should she not catch this 
time, I let her run over heat number three and serve 
her in heat number four, and so on until she finally 
does catch. 

" If a cow has last produced a bull-calf, then, in 
this case, I have her served the very first time she 
comes around after calving, and shut her up by her- 
self as in the preceding case. Should she not catch 
by tliis service, I let her run over the next, or season 
number two, and serve her the next, or season number 
three, etc., until she catches. My reasons for so doing 



336 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BEEEDING. 

are just these : I take for granted that every alternate 
egg or OYum presented for impregnation is a male. 
Consequently, if a cow has a bull-calf, the next egg in 
her rotation must be a female, and, if impregnated 
when presented, the produce will be a female, etc."^ 

It will be difficult to reconcile the hypothesis 
presented by Mr. Stuyvesant with the cases in which 
the sex of the offspring is apparently determined by 
the male parent, the proportions of the sexes observed 
in plural births, or with the observed influence of 
nutrition upon sex in insects, recorded by Mrs. Treat 
and Mr. Gentry. 

In the last-mentioned cases the sex was not deter- 
mined until the embryo had reached an advanced 
stage of development, and the eggs could not, there- 
fore, have been endowed with sexuality ; and we have 
no physiological reasons for the belief that the ovum 
of the higher animals presents an exception, in this 
respect, to the general law that governs the function 
of reproduction. 

^ Country Gentleman, ISYY, p. 415. 

The polled Angus cow (" Old Grannie ^^hred and owned by Hugh 
Watson, of Keillor, produced twenty-nine calves — five males, " all ex- 
tensive prize-winners," and twenty-four heifers, " elegant cows of re- 
nown." She died in July, 1859, at the remarkable age of thirty-five 
years and six months. ( TJie Breeder's Gazette, quoted in New York 
Tribune, September 4, 1882.) 



CHAPTEE XY. 

PEDIGREE. 

A PEDIGREE is a record or statement of tlie ances- 
tors of an animal, tliat serves as a guide in tracing 
inherited characters. 

In itseK considered it is not necessarily an evi- 
dence of pnrity of blood, as animals of mixed blood 
may have a recorded pedigree as well as those that 
are purely bred. 

The first records of animals belonging to the dif- 
ferent breeds are to some extent conventional, and 
the details of the lineage are not always given with 
the accuracy that is required in recording their de- 
scendants. 

When animals in a particular locality have certain 
general characteristics which they transmit with uni- 
formity to their offspring, they are recognized as a 
distinct breed. The descendants of these animals 
may be bred for an indefinite period without any 
published record of their ancestry, until the impor- 
tance of the breed and its wider diffusion render it 
desirable that a systematic record be made, that will 
define its limits and enable breeders to readily trace 
the various lines of descent that connect their animals 
with the original representatives of the breed. When 



338 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDINa. 

sufficient encouragement is given to insure tlie success 
of tlie enterprise, an individual, or an association of 
breeders, may undertake the publication of a record, 
wliich is called a herd-book or stud-book. 

Any animals that are generally acknowledged to 
belong to the particular breed are admitted to this 
record, although their owners may not be able to fur- 
nish a detailed statement of their ancestral history. 

Animals that have been the means of establishing 
the reputation of the breed by their superior merit, 
wall be found on the record, side by side, not only 
with the inferior members of the breed, but with 
those of questionable purity of blood. Many animals 
may trace their descent from herds that have been 
noted for producing the best representatives of the 
breed, while others will have nothing in their ances- 
tral history to recommend them aside from their sup- 
posed purity of blood. 

As the original records include animals of very- 
unequal merit, their descendants, that appear in the 
later volumes of the herd-books, must present a like 
diversity in their qualities. 

From these differences in the quality of the ani- 
mals entitled to record, it will be seen that the inher- 
ited peculiarities of an individual, aside from the 
general characters belonging to the breed, must be 
determined by evidence not contained in the herd- 
books ; and that the pedigree, as recorded, will only 
serve as a guide to the study of inherited characters, 
from its enumeration of the individuals comprised in 
the ancestry, without indicating their relative rank or 
value. 



PEDIGREE. S39 

The value of any pedigree will depend upon its 
authenticity, completeness, and the quality or charac- 
teristics of the animals comprised in the ancestry. 

The authenticity of a pedigree is to be determined 
by the same rules that guide us in deciding upon the 
truth of any other statement or record. In the first 
place, it must be consistent with itself j and in accord- 
ance with the known facts in the history of the breed. 

The reputation of the breeder for integrity, and 
the care with which he keeps a record of the breeding 
of his stock, together with his opportunities for ob- 
taining correct information in regard to the statements 
he places on record, must all be taken into considera- 
tion. A pedigree made from memory alone, some 
time after the occurrence of the facts recorded, cannot 
be so satisfactory as one based on records made at the 
time. 

The intentional or careless omission of a name in 
copying a pedigree is a frequent source of error that 
is not easily detected by persons who are not familiar 
with the history of the family to which the animal 
belongs. 

Under the head of completeness it is important 
that the name and residence of the breeder and the 
present owner be given, together with the date of 
birth, the color, and other distinguishing marks that 
may aid in identifying the animals that are named in 
the record. 

Every animal mentioned in the pedigree should be 
traced through every line of descent to individuals of 
acknowledged purity of blood. 

A defect in the record, or the evidence of a cross 



340 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

of impure blood several generations back, may appear 
to be of but little consequence from tbe very small 
fraction that apparently represents the proportion of 
impure blood in the system. 

The facts of atavism, and the observed influence 
of a cross for many generations afterward, will, how- 
ever, show that the intensity of an inherited peculi- 
arity cannot be expressed or represented in mathe- 
matical terms. 

rieischmann states ^ that the common sheep in 
Germany grow from " 5,000 to 5,500 wool-hairs " to 
the square inch ; while the pure-bred merino sheep 
that are used in improving them by crossing have 
from "40,000 to 48,000 wool-hairs" to the square 
inch. The cross-bred sheep, when a pure merino ram 
has invariably been used on one side of the ancestral 
line, have but " 27,000 wool-hairs " to the square inch 
" in the twentieth generation," which is about a mean 
of the numbers observed in the common sheep and 
the merinos. 

If the " blood " of the original varieties had been 
transmitted in mathematical proportions, a grade or 
cross-bred of the twentieth generation would have less 
than one-millionth part of the " blood " of the com- 
mon sheep. The number of wool-hairs to the square 
inch, and other peculiarities of the wool in such cross- 
bred animals, show that this apparently insignificant 
fraction of blood has a marked influence on the char- 
acter of the fleece. 

The completeness of the ancestral record, and the 
unquestionable purity of blood of every animal in- 

1 " Patent-Office Report," 1847, pp. 269-2'71. 



PEDIGREE. 341 

eluded in it, would therefore seem to be a matter of 
real importance. 

As there are many animals of the same name re- 
corded in the herd-books, the recorded number, which 
becomes a part of the name itseK, must be given in 
the pedigree as the only means of identification. 

As animals may be descended in one or more lines 
from a given herd, and still have an infusion of blood 
from other sources that may be objectionable, a pedi- 
gree should not end in a general clause indicating 
descent from a specified herd or importation, without 
giving in full the name and number of each animal in 
every line of descent. 

A pedigree tracing all lines of descent from ani- 
mals bred by men who were known as breeders of 
pure-bred animals at the time the first records were 
made must, however, be accepted as complete,- as all 
recorded pedigrees have a similar basis. 

After examining a pedigree with reference to its 
authenticity and completeness, the characteristics of 
the individuals included in each line of descent, and 
of the families which they represent, should be care- 
fully considered. 

If all the ancestors of an animal have been remark- 
able for their good qualities, and their conformity to 
the same general type of excellence, and for their 
freedom from serious defects, its inherited peculiari- 
ties will be valued not only for the merits it may be 
expected to possess as an individual, but for the cer- 
tainty with which the dominant characters of the 
family will be transmitted to its offspring. If, on the 
other hand, the ancestors present great variations of 



342 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

form aAd quality, with the frequent occurrence of 
defects that diminish the value of an individual for a 
special purpose, the dominant characters of the animal, 
as determined by inheritance, cannot be predicted 
with any certainty, and it cannot be relied on to trans- 
mit the most desirable qualities of its ancestors, as 
dominant characters, to its offspring. 

The great difference in the actual value of animals, 
arising from their inherited qualities, may be seen 
from a single illustration : 

Two persons, A and B, begin to breed Short-Horns 
at the same time, by making a selection of females 
from the same herd, so that the value and quality of 
the animals they start with are the same. 

Mr. A, who has definite ideas of the form and 
qualities of the animals he proposes to breed, makes a 
careful study of his herd, with reference to the selec- 
tion of a bull that will correct any defects he may 
observe, and, at the same time, improve it in one or 
more of the most desirable characters. After visiting 
a number of herds, and making a considerable expen- 
diture of time and money, he finds the bull that will 
best suit his purpose ; but, as it is an animal of ex- 
traordinary merit, the owner does not propose to part 
with it. As this is the only animal Mr. A has seen 
that answers all the requirements of his standard of 
excellence, he finally secures his services at what others 
might consider an extravagant price. He is deter- 
mined to establish a herd of the highest attainable 
excellence, and does not count the cost in carrying 
his designs into effect. 

After using this bull in the herd as long as it 



PEDIGREE. 343 

seems desirable, another, of the same general type 
and qualities, is selected with the same care and judg- 
ment, and regardless of expense, the only considera- 
tion that determines his choice being the usefulness 
of the animal in the improvement of the herd. When 
better animals of the desired type cannot be obtained 
elsewhere, some favorite male of his own herd is 
selected to perpetuate the valuable qualities already 
established. 

After practising this system of selection rigorously 
for many years, the herd may become celebrated for 
its uniformity and excellence, and other breeders will 
find it for their interest to resort to it for males to 
improve their own stock, that has not been so care- 
fully bred. 

Mr. B, with the same opportunities for improve- 
ment, has no definite standard of excellence, and is, 
moreover, unable to detect the defects of the females 
he has selected as the foundation of a herd. In the 
selection of a male he might consider purity of blood 
the most important, and perhaps the only, considera- 
tion. As he does not realize the fact that the male, 
in effect, constitutes one-half of the breeding elements 
of his herd, he may, perhaps, think he cannot afford 
to buy a high-priced bull, the purchase already made 
having nearly exhausted his supply of ready money. 
A neighbor has a pure-bred bull he does not wish to 
use any longer, which he offers to sell at one-half the 
price originally paid for him. 

This bull may have all the defects and but few of 
the good qualities of the females already purchased, 
yet he is placed at the head of the herd simply be- 



3M miNCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

cause lie can be bought at a moderate price. Some of 
his calves may resemble their dams in their best points, 
while in many of them the defects of both parents 
may predominate. 

When another bull is needed in the herd, a similar 
selection is made, in direct violation of the established 
rules of the modern system of breeding. 

The effects of this hap-hazard system, or, rather, 
lack of system, are readily recognized in the great 
differences in form and quality presented by individual 
animals, and the low average excellence of the herd. 

The pedigree of an animal from the herd of Mr. 
A would not only represent qualities that were in 
themselves valuable, but a potency in the hereditary 
transmission of these qualities that would be highly 
valued by the experienced breeder. 

The pedigree of an animal from the herd of Mr. 
B would not add to its value for the purposes of the 
breeder, as its inherited tendencies, as shown by its 
ancestral history, would be such as it would not be 
desirable to perpetuate. 

From these extreme cases it must be seen that the 
value of an animal for breeding purposes does not 
depend entirely upon its form and apparent qualities 
when studied as an individual, but also upon its pedi- 
gree which represents the sum of its inherited char- 
acteristics. 

In breeding-stock, individual excellence in con- 
nection with the best inherited characters is of course 
desirable in all cases ; but, when it is impossible to 
secure this combination of qualities, the breeder should 
not lose sight of the fact that the greatest perfection 



PEDIGKEE. 345 

in the individual will not compensate for ancestral de- 
fects that have been frequently repeated, as the latter 
will in all probability have a predominant influence 
upon the offspring. 

In this connection, it may be well to notice what 
are popularly called " fancy prices " and " fancy 
points " in breeding. Many persons who are not 
familiar with the practice of the best breeders seem 
to think that almost everything relating to pure-bred 
stock is a matter of fancy only, and that the qualities 
of real value for the practical purposes of the farm 
are neglected. 

It is undoubtedly true that breeders often fail to 
comprehend the relations of form to the qualities of 
intrinsic value, and that errors in judgment in the 
selection of breeding-stock are of frequent occurrence. 

The breeders who have gained a world-wide repu- 
tation in the improvement of the different breeds have, 
however, made the development of useful qualities 
their leading or sole object. The animals that have 
been sold or " let " at extraordinary prices have been 
members of families that were noted for their uni- 
form good qualities, and for their prepotency in trans- 
mitting their characteristics when coupled with ani- 
mals that represent the average excellence of the 
breed. Their real merits as breeders made them 
" popular," or " fashionable," and the high prices that 
they have commanded have been largely the result of 
competition among breeders who were seeking the 
best means of improvement in their flocks and herds. 

It must, however, be admitted that in many in- 
stances the prices of valuable animals have been en- 



34:6 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

hanced by mere speculators, who knew little and cared 
less for the true principles of breeding, and the im- 
provement of animals for their useful qualities. 

That the real interests of those who are engaged 
in the legitimate business of breeding have been in- 
jured bj the speculative buyers of favorite families, 
no one familiar with the history of our improved 
breeds will deny. 

Even breeders of ability, who might gain an envi- 
able reputation, and a satisfactory pecuniary reward, 
by devoting their energies to the development of the 
best qualities of their favorite breed, have encouraged 
the prevailing mania for speculation by making pur- 
chases of animals that could not possibly be of use in 
the improvement of their herds, and putting them up 
at auction with the best of their own breeding to make 
an attractive sale. 

IS^otwithstanding the extravagant prices that have 
been paid, under the stimulus of excitement, for ani- 
mals that were of but little value for any practical 
purpose, persons who have a full knowledge of the 
interests involved in the legitimate business of breed- 
ing choice stock would hardly be willing to set a limit 
to the prices that may be consistently paid or refused 
for animals of extraordinary merit, that are especially 
adapted to the wants of a carefully-bred flock or herd. 

The late Edwin Hammond remarked to the writer, 
after refusing what appeared to be an extravagant 
price for his ram Gold Drop, that he could not afford 
to sell his best ram at any price, unless he should de- 
cide to give up the business of sheep-breeding, and 
sell his entire flock. 



PEDIGREE. 347 

"With the true spirit of a successful breeder, who 
had spent many years of systematic effort in establish- 
ing a flock that excelled in its useful qualities, Mr. 
Hammond placed a higher value upon the improve- 
ments he expected to obtain in his entire flock by the 
use of this ram than he did upon the money he could 
have been sold for. 

The breeder who can be tempted by high prices 
to part with his best animals cannot reasonably expect 
to succeed in establishing a flock or herd of remark- 
able excellence. 

Peculiarities of color or form, that do not repre- 
sent any valuable qualities, may be properly called 
"fancy points ; " and the money paid for them by the 
purchaser may be considered a " fancy price," whether 
the amount is small or large. 

The solid color and black points of the Jerseys, 
and the red and dark roan of the Short-Horns, that 
are so fashionable at the present time in America, are 
good illustrations of mere " fancy points," that should 
not be taken into consideration in forming a consistent 
standard of excellence. 

The prevailing fashion for particular colors, with- 
out reference to the qualities connected with them, 
must not only tend to retard the improvement of these 
breeds, but to diminish their value for practical pur- 
poses by encouraging the selection of breeding-stock 
in accordance with a false standard of excellence. 

The wrinkles on merino sheep furnish another il- 
lustration of fancy points that are not only useless in 
themselves, but decidedly injurious, from the blend- 
ing of different styles of wool in the fleece that 



348 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BPvEEDING. 

diminishes its value for the purposes of the manu- 
facturer. 

The interests of the breeder of fine-wooled sheep 
will always be best promoted by the production of a 
style of wool that is adapted to some special purpose, 
and that will, therefore, command the highest price 
in the market. 

A peculiarity that is characteristic of the breed, or 
of a family of extraordinary excellence, although triv- 
ial in itself, would, however, be of real value as an 
indication of the inheritance of the qualities of the 
breed or family, and could not, therefore, be consid- 
ered a fancy point. 

The Southdowns bred by Mr. "Webb, which were 
justly celebrated for their superior qualities, had lighter- 
colored faces and legs than other families of the breed, 
and the breeders at the present time value the lighter 
shades of color of the face and legs as representing 
one of the characteristics of the Webb blood. 

The tan-colored marks on the ears and faces of 
the merino sheep were highly prized by the early 
breeders as an indication of the "blood," and they 
could not, strictly speaking, be called " fancy points," 
as they represented inherited tendencies that were in 
themselves valuable. 

For convenience and exactness of expression in 
discussing the lineage of animals, and in recording 
pedigrees, the following terms are in use among 
breeders : 

The term "thorough-bred," in its strict significa- 
tion, is used to designate the English race-horse, and it 
has been generally adopted as the name of the breed. 



PEDIGREE. 349 

In America the term "thorough-bred" is fre- 
quently applied to sheep and cattle ; but, as there are 
other terms in use to express the same idea that are 
quite as definite and concise, without being open to 
the objection of ambiguity, it would be well to restrict 
it to its original use as the name of a distinct breed 
of horses. 

"Pure-bred," "full-blood," and "thorough-bred," 
were defined by the American Association of Short- 
Horn Breeders as synonjonous terms, and to indicate 
" animals of a distinct and well-defined breed, with- 
out any admixture of other blood." ^ 

The following definitions were also adopted by the 
association : 

" ^ Cross-bred ' — animals produced by breeding to- 
gether distinct breeds. 

" ' Grades ' — the produce of a cross between a ^ pure- 
bred ' and a ' native.' 

" ' High-grade ' — an animal of mixed blood, in which 
the blood of a pure breed largely predominates." 

Close-breeding is the coupling of animals that are 
closely related; while "in-and-in breeding" implies 
the closest possible relationship in the animals bred 
together. 

High-breeding is sometimes used as synonymous 
with close-breeding, but it properly signifies a rigor- 
ous selection of breeding-stock with reference to a 
definite standard, and within the limits of a particular 
family. 

In what is popularly called " breeding-in-the-line," 

* " Proceedings of American Association of Breeders of Short- 
Horns," Indianapolis, 18'72, p. 21. 



350 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

the selection of males is limited to a particular family, 
without reference to the quality or uniformity of the 
animals selected. Strictly speaking, however, it means 
the selection of males of a common type and belong- 
ing to the same family. 

In defining the parentage of animals, the terms 
" out of " and " got by," or, in the abbreviated form, 
"by," are made use of, the former referring to the 
dam and the latter to the sire ; for example. Favorite 
(252) was got by Bolingbroke (86), out of Phoenix by 
Foljambe (263) : that is to say, Bolingbroke (86) was 
the sire of Favorite (252), and Phoenix by Foljambe 
(263) was the dam of Favorite (252) ; and the sire of 
Phoenix was Foljambe (263). The term " out of " is 
sometimes improperly used in referring to the sire ; it 
should, however, for the purpose of exactness, be used 
only when referring to the dam ; and " got by " or 
" by " should be as strictly limited to a reference to 
the sire. 

In Short-Horn and Hereford pedigrees the bulls 
only have a number, while the females are designated 
by the name of their sire following the word " by ; " 
as, in the above example, the cow Phoenix is distin- 
guished from all others of the same name by being 
the daughter of the bull Foljambe (86). 

As there are several Short-Horn herd-books, it be- 
comes necessary to indicate in the pedigree the par- 
ticular record to which the numbers attached to the 
names of bulls refer. 

Where some other method is not specified, num- 
bers without distinguishing marks are understood as re- 
ferring to " The American Herd-Book ; " those placed 



PEDIGREE. 351 

within marks of parentliesis ( ) refer to " The English 
Herd-Book," as in the above examples ; while the 
numbers of "The Canadian Herd-Book" are placed 
within brackets [ ]. 

When nmnbers refer to Alexander's " Short-Horn 
Kecord," the method of distinguishing them is usually 
mentioned in connection with the pedigree. 

In the Devon, Jersey, and Ayrshire herd-books, 
the females, as well as the males, have a distinguish- 
ing number. 

For the convenience of those who are not familiar 
with recorded pedigrees, examples showing the form 
of record in the different herd-books will be found in 
the Appendix. 



CHAPTEE XYI. 

rOEM OF ANIMALS AS AIS^ INDEX OF QUALITIES. 

The constitutional tendencies and general charac- 
teristics of animals may be ascertained, as we have 
seen, with great certainty by a study of their ancestral 
history. Any additional information in regard to the 
details of the organization, which determine the quali- 
ties that are of value in the economy of the farm, as 
the disposition, nervous energy, muscular strength 
and activity, quality of flesh, proportion of valuable 
carcass, activity of the processes of nutrition, and 
strength of constitution, must be gained through the 
indications presented in the external form, that are 
manifest to the sight and touch. 

Too little attention has been paid to the relations 
existing between the external form of the animal and 
its internal and more obscure characteristics, upon 
which its value in a great measure depends. 

Every part of the external conformation should be 
associated in the mind of the breeder with the corre- 
lated peculiarities of structure that give the greatest 
value to the animal for some particular purpose, and 
thus serve as an index to the many important charac- 
teristics that might otherwise escape attention. 

The eye should be trained to detect the slight 



ANIMAL FORM AN INDEX OF QUALITIES. 353 

modifications of form tliat indicate real values, and 
our notions of beauty in external form and expression 
should be based upon an assemblage of symmetrical 
characters that are in themselves useful. 

"Without some consistent standards of beauty and 
utility, that have a definite relation to the details of 
the organization, individuals will unavoidably differ 
in opinion, not only as to what constitutes perfection 
of form, but as to the relative value of the different 
parts of the body, which, when taken together, give 
expression to the general conformation of the animal. 

Any general expression of symmetry or proportion 
that is pleasing to the eye may be regarded, by the 
unskilled observer, as a form of beauty that is satis- 
factory, although it may not represent any of the 
qualities that render the animal valuable for any use- 
ful purpose. 

The practical man, looking upon pecuniary values 
as the true standard of excellence, will only be pleased 
with the symmetrical proportions of form that indi- 
cate the presence of valuable qualities in the greatest 
perfection. 

In the improved breeds the peculiarities of form 
and character that adapt the animal to a particular 
purpose are most highly prized, and the relative value 
of individuals therefore depends, to a great extent, 
upon their development in a special direction. 

The principle of correlation that enables the breed- 
er to determine the internal characteristics and ten- 
dencies of the organization, through the indications 
presented by the external form, is of general applica- 
tion, and may be made use of in the study gf animals 



354 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

representing the different breeds ; but the points upon 
which an opinion is formed will necessarily have a 
different value in each breed, from the difference in 
the qualities that constitute perfection. 

In animals intended for the butcher, the most 
satisfactory test of merit can only be applied when 
they reach their destination on the hlock, where the 
relative development of the most valuable parts can 
be readily demonstrated. 

This test, from its very nature, cannot, however, 
be applied in those cases in which a reliable method 
of estimating real values is most needed — as in deter- 
mining the relative merits of breeding-stock, or the 
feeding qualities of animals that are to be fattened. 

As a practical test of the true value cannot, in 
many instances, be applied to the living animal — as 
in determining the greatest proportion of choice parts 
in animals intended for the butcher — the prospective 
value of young animals for the dairy or for work — or 
the ability of animals in the lean condition to fatten 
rapidly when well fed — we must resort to the ancestral 
history for a knowledge of inherited tendencies, and 
to the details of external conformation for an index 
of all other particulars. 

To become an expert in judging animals with 
reference to their value on the whole, for a particular 
purpose, requires extended opportunities for observa- 
tion under a variety of conditions — a careful study of 
their form when alive, in connection with their ap- 
pearance on the butcher's block, where the leading 
object is meat, and for other purposes, the relations of 
their form to the activity of the functions concerned 



ANIMAL FORM AN INDEX OF QUALITIES. 355 

— in the perforaiance of labor, or in tlie prodnction of 
wool and milk — must not be overlooked, and even 
then a long experience will be required to train the 
eye and the touch to make nice discriminations in 
essential details. 

Admitting, then, that the thorough knowledge of 
animals that enables a person to form a correct opinion 
as to characteristics and quality cannot be gained 
without practical training and experience, it is never- 
theless true that the acquisition of such knowledge 
may be facilitated by a study of the correlated struct- 
ure of the animal organization, so that the relative 
value of different parts, and the relations of one organ 
or set of organs to another, and to the entire system, 
may be clearly understood. 

The principles that are applied in the study of 
comparative anatomy and physiology, in tracing the 
harmonies of structure and function in allied groups, 
which have been discussed in a preceding chapter, 
must then be of practical interest to the breeder, as 
they aid him in determining the relative value of the 
various modifications of form observed in the animals 
he is trying to improve. 

Moreover, the external form and proportions of an 
animal, when studied from this point of view, cannot 
fail to furnish the most satisfactory indications of the 
structure and functional activity of the internal organs 
concerned in the complex processes of nutrition^ upon 
which all forms of animal products depend. 

As the greatest excellence in the production of 
meat, or milk, or wool, or labor, involves peculiarities 
of structure and function that adapt the animal in 



356 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 



each case to a special purpose, it will be necessary to 
consider separately the correlations existing in these 
different forms of production. 




All animals belonging to the best developed meat- 
producing breeds have essentially the same general 



ANIMAL FORM AN INDEX OF QUALITIES. 



357 



characters and form, and a corresponding similarity 
prevails in their correlated structure. 




The following characteristics may be mentioned 
as of especial importance, the absence of any one of 
them tending to materially diminish the value of the 
animal in the production of meat : 



358 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

1. A sound constitution is of course desirable in 
all animals, but it is indispensable in the feeding ani- 
mal whose powers of nutrition are taxed to the fullest 
extent in the rapid conversion of the food that is re- 
quired in successful feeding. 

2. Good feeding quality, or the ability to fatten 
rapidly at an early age and return the largest profit 
for food consumed. 

3. The flesh should be of good quality, and the 
carcass should furnish the largest possible proportion 
of choice parts, with a corresponding diminution of 
the parts of little or no value. 

The general proportions of the animal which first 
naturally attract attention will frequently furnish in- 
dications of its leading characteristics, without an 
examination of the details of its conformation. 

Many of the best authorities on external form 
agree in the statement that the body of an animal 
intended for the butcher should be somewhat rectan- 
gular in outline, giving the form of a parallelogram 
when viewed from the side, and of a square when 
viewed from before or behind ; ^ but, in approximating 
to these mathematical figures in outline, it should be 
remembered that the angular parts of the body must 
be rounded and smoothly blended with the general 
surface, without any bony prominences or coarseness 
to detract from the general expression of compactness, 
substance, and symmetry, that marks the perfection of 
useful beauty. 

^ Quarterly Journal of Agriculture^ vol. v., p. 162, vol. vi., p. 267; 
Johnson's " Farmer's Encyclopaedia," p. 299 ; Farmer^s Magazine^ vol. 
sxxix., p. 480, vol. ii., p. 97. 



ANIMAL FORM AN INDEX OF QUALITIES. 359 




360 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

Several illustrations of the rectangular type of 
form that prevails in the meat-prodncing breeds are 
given in the outline sketches, Figs. 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, and 
7 ; in contrast with them, Figs. 8 and 9 furnish good 
illustrations of forms that are objectionable. 

Regularity and symmetry in the general outline 
are not, however, sufficient in themselves to constitute 
perfection in external form, the proportions of the 
body being quite as important as an indication of the 
characteristics of the animal. 

If the body is excessively long, without corre- 
sponding depth and substance, and the under -line, 
from the proportionate length of legs, is too far from 
the ground, a delicacy of constitution is indicated, in 
connection with poor feeding quality, late maturity, 
and a deficiency in the proportion of choice parts in 
the carcass. 

The long-bodied bull. Fig. 4, sketched from life, 
has nearly all the defects that usually accompany such 
faulty proportions in general form. The chest is nar- 
row and lacking in capacity, as indicated by the form 
of the brisket, the defective fore-flank, flat ribs, and 
deficient girth ; the shoulder is too upright, the crops 
defective, the loins narrow, ^e flanks light, and there 
is too large a proportion of the coarser parts of the 
carcass. 

A low and remarkably short body, with great 
depth and thickness of carcass, as in Fig. 5, indicates 
a tendency to mature early, to lay on fat rapidly, and 
it may be in excess and in masses that are objection- 
able, with a deficiency in muscle or lean meat. From 
their extreme compactness such animals may weigh 



ANIMAL FORM AN INDEX OF QUALITIES. 3^1 




362 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 




ANIMAL FORM AN INDEX OF QUALITIES. 363 

well in proportion to size, but the weight, on the 
whole, may be deficient, and the flesh, from the exces- 
sive proportion of fat, may not be of the best quality. 

^Notwithstanding the objections to these very short 
and compact animals, as a type of the best form for 
the production of meat, they may be advantageously 
used as sires in flocks and herds that are decidedly 
deficient in fattening quality ; the excessive tendency 
to the production of fat and the deficiency in muscle 
or lean meat being corrected by the opposite tenden- 
cies of the females with which they are coupled. 

Of the two extreme types of form that have been 
presented the latter is to be preferred, as the defects 
consist only in the undue prominence or excessive de- 
velopment of qualities that are in themselves desirable^ 

When the depth and thickness of the body are in 
proper proportion to the length, as in Fig. 6, and the 
lower joints of the legs are short, so that there is not 
too much space between the lower line of the body 
and the ground, good feeding quality and early matu- 
rity may be looked for, in connection with good mus- 
cular development and flesh of the best quality, the 
fat being evenly distributed, while the harmony of 
proportions and great substance will give the greatest 
weight of valuable carcass. 

Animals of the same dressed weight when exam- 
ined on the butcher's block will be found to present 
great differences in the relative proportion of the 
cheap and the high-priced parts, and they will there- 
fore differ greatly in actual value, without taking into 
account any differences that may exist in the general 
quality of flesh. 



364 



PKINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 




ANIMAL FORM AN INDEX OF QUALITIES. 865 

The cheap parts cannot, as a matter of course, be 
entirely dispensed with ; but they should be reduced 
in amount as far as possible without interfering with 
the strength and vigor of the animal. 

If a line be drawn from the shoulder-point to the 
knee (patella, or whirlbone), or first joint below the 
hip (i. e., the joint nearest the flank), in the living 
animal, it will be seen that the parts of the body 
above this line are of greater value as meat than the 
parts below. 

In judging of the relative value of two animals 
that are equal in all other particulars, it wiU therefore 
be safe to say that the one giving the largest propor- 
tion of carcass above the line is the best for the pur- 
poses of the butcher. 

In the best-proportioned animal it will likewise be 
seen that the sides of the body are filled out to the 
line, when applied, as above directed, in its entire 
length, without leaving any depressions between the 
line and the body at the flank and behind the arm. 

This test will be found of value to the student in 
training the eye to detect slight variations in form, 
while the experienced breeder wiU be able to take in 
at a glance the conditions presented in these propor- 
tions without resorting to the method of actual meas- 
urement.* 

^ For observations on the general form of animals tlie student may 
profitably consult "The New Farmer's Calendar," by Lawrence, pp. 
454, 455 ; " The Complete Grazier," p. 35 ; Coventry on "Agriculture," 
p. 174; "A Guide to Form in Cattle," by Welles; Harris on "The 
Pig," p. 17 ; Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society^ vol, xv., p. 87 ; 
Marshall's " Midland Counties," vol. i., p. 297 ; Youatt on " Cattle," p. 
191 ; "American Cattle," by Allen, p. 158 ; Farmer^s Magazine^\o\. xi., 



866 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

The skeleton or bony frame of the animal may- 
next be profitably examined. As bones are of but 
little value, aside from the support they furnish for 
the soft parts of the body, they should be as small as 
is consistent with strength and a vigorous constitution. 

Fortunately, however, the greatest strength does 
not depend upon size, but upon texture, the quality 
being of greater importance than quantity. An illus- 
tration of this may be seen in the long bones, the shaft 
which bears the greatest strain being small from com- 
pactness and fineness of structure, while the extremi- 
ties are large and spongy, the greater surface being of 
use for the attachment of the tendinous terminations 
of the muscles. 

A large, coarse bone may not only be deficient in 
strength, but it will increase the weight of the carcass 
without adding to its value. 

Small bones are an indication of good feeding 
quality, early maturity, and superior, fine-grained 
flesh ; while coarse, large bones, with prominent joints 
and angular projections of the skeleton, indicate poor 
feeding quality, late maturity, and coarse flesh, in 
connection with a large proportion of offal and cheap 
pieces in the carcass when reaching its final destina- 
tion on the block.^ 



p. 98, vol. xxxvii., p. 318, vol. xxxix., p. 478, vol. xl., p. 232 ; Cline's 
" Observations on the Breeding and Form of Domestic Animals," pp. 
1-8 ; Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. v., p. 266, vol. vi., p. 159 ; 
Johnson's " Farmer's Encyclopaedia," p. 297, and other standard works. 
' Farmer^ s Magazine, vol. xi., p. 98, vol. xl., p. 231 ; Journal of the 
Royal Agricultural Society, vol. xv., p. 87 ; Young's " Eastern Tour," 
vol. i., p. 3. 



ANIMAL FORM AN INDEX OF QUALITIES. 367 

" Bakewell strongly insisted on tlie advantage of 
small hones, and the celebrated Jolin Hunter declared 
that small bones were generally attended with corpu- 
lence in all the various subjects he had an opportunity 
of examining." ^ 

Mr. Henry Cline, an English surgeon, says : " The 
strength of an animal does not depend on the size of 
the bones, but on that of the muscles. Many animals 
with large bones are weak, their muscles being small. 
Animals that were imperfectly nourished during 
growth have their bones disproportionately large. If 
such deficiency of nourishment originated from a con- 
stitutional defect, which is the most frequent cause, 
they remain weak during life. Large tones, there- 
fore, generally indicate an imperfection in the organs 
of nutrition.'^'' ^ 

The parts of the animal that are not deeply cov- 
ered with flesh — as the head, legs, and tail, together 
with the horns, when present, and the hoofs, although 
of but little value in themselves — furnish the best 
indications of the size, texture, and proportions, of the 
bones throughout the entire system ; and in the im- 
proved breeds they give an expression of refinement 
and high quality to the otherwise massive structure 
of the general organization. 

Improvements in this direction, however, have a 
limit that cannot be safely passed, as an excessive re- 
finement of the bony tissues is often accompanied by 
a delicacy of constitution that predisposes the system 
to disease from exciting causes that would have little 

* Sinclair's " Code of Agriculture," p. 88. 

^ " Breeding and Form of Domestic Animals," p. 1. 



368 PRINCirLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

or no effect upon animals tliat have not been subject- 
ed to artificial conditions in their management. 

It does not follow, however, that the constitution 
is impaired by diminishing the size of the bones, or 
that an increase in their size adds to its general 
vigor. 

All the best qualities of the improved breeds, as 
has been shown elsewhere, have been obtained by 
artificial treatment, that tended to disturb the equi- 
librium of the system, and produce changes in the 
functional activity of the most important organs that 
give rise to modifications of the structure, that are not 
observed under what may be called the normal condi- 
tions of existence. ^ 

A greater degree of refinement and delicacy of 
one set of organs involves a similar change in other 
organs, through the influence of the same modifying 
agencies which affect the entire system; and these, 
when acting in excess, may produce a sensitiveness or 
delicacy of the organization as a whole, that we recog- 
nize as a defect of constitutional vigor. 

An excessive refinement of the bones would there- 
fore indicate a delicacy and over-refinement of the 
general system. 

In discussing the details of external form, with 
reference to the qualities indicated by peculiarities in 
the development of particular parts, we will, in the 
first place, examine the points of the improved Short- 
Homs, as they may be fairly assumed to represent the 
type of the meat-producing breeds in their most im- 
portant characters. 

The peculiarities of other allied breeds will only 



ANIMAL FORM AN INDEX OF QUALITIES. 369 

be noticed comparatively when they differ materially 
from the typical form nnder consideration. 

The " points " or parts of the animal that require 
attention are marked on the outline figure of a Short- 
Horn cow (Fig. Y) : A, forehead ; B, face ; O, cheek ; 
J) J muzzle ; jBJ neck ; i^, neck-yein ; G, shoulder- 
point ; JS^, arm ; /, shank ; IT, elbow ; X, brisket ; M, 
shoulder-blade ; JV, crops ; O, chine ; J*, loin ; Q, 
hips ; JS, rump ; S, sacrum or crupper-bone ; T, but- 
tock ; U, thigh or gaskin ; Y, flank ; W, plates ; JT, 
hock ; jT, throat ; Z, fore-flank ; qr, quarter ; wh, pa- 
tella or whirlbone.^ 

The head should be small in proportion to the 
body ; the frontal bone broad, without coarseness ; the 
forehead slightly concave from the prominence of the 
rim of the orbits; and the face gradually tapering 
from the eyes to the muzzle, which should be fine, 
with a well-developed nostril, which indicates an am- 
ple development of the air-passages. 

The jaw should be clean and free from folds of 

^ As the terms chine and whirlbone are often improperly used to 
indicate other parts of the body, it may be well to define them more 
particularly. Chine, in its general signification, means back ; but it 
has long been used by breeders to indicate that part of the back be- 
tween the neck and the loins. The back is therefore divided into three 
regions, viz., the chine, the loins, and the region of the sacrum or crup- 
per-bone. The upper end of the femur has sometimes been called the 
whirl or round bone. {See Youatt on " The Horse," p. 262.) The 
terms whirlbone, turlbone, round-bone, knee-pan, knee-cap, and stifle- 
bone are, however, properly synonymous with patella, the bone devel- 
oped in the tendon covering the knee-joint, or the articulation of the 
lower end of the femur with the head of the tibia, as marked in Fig. 1. 
(/See Webster's, Worcester's, and Ainsworth's Dictionaries, and Wright's 
"Provincial Dictionary," vol. ii., p. 1019.) 



370 



rPtlNCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 



6 




^ 



ANIMAL FORM AN INDEX OP QUALITIES. 371 

skin, and there must be no superfluous flesh on other 
parts of the head and face to give the animal a heavy- 
headed appearance. These peculiarities in the head 
and face are an indication of fine bones in the general 
skeleton, and the qualities that are usually associated 
with them. The eye, when prominent, bright, and 
clear, with a mild and gentle expression, is an indica- 
tion of health, with a quiet disposition and good feed- 
ing quality. If the eye is dull and sunken, the capil- 
lary circulation will be defective, and the functions of 
nutrition imperfectly performed ; and there will not 
only be a deficiency in the ability to fatten, but a lack 
of strength and constitutional vigor. A restless and 
wild expression of the eye indicates a predominance 
of nervous action and an unquiet disposition that is 
not compatible with good feeding quality. 

The ear should be large, without coarseness and 
not drooping, but with sufficient action to give a pleas- 
ing expression. 

A drooping ear, with a general dull expression of 
countenance, is an indication of defective nutrition 
and a lack of constitutional vigor. 

The horns of animals are generally supposed to be 
of no value, aside from their influence upon the gen- 
eral expression, which is considered a matter of fancy 
only. 

Each breed has peculiarities in the size and form 
of the horns that are, within certain limits, character- 
istic ; and individual breeders will choose those modi- 
fications of the general type that best accord with 
their ideas of beauty. 

Notwithstanding these admissible variations in gen- 



372 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDIXG. 

eral form, there are certain peculiarities in the devel- 
ment and texture of the horns that may serve alike in 
all breeds as an index of internal qualities. 

The horns of the hollow-horned ruminants, in- 
cluding cattle and sheep, consist of a hollow bony 
core developed from the frontal bone, and a sheath 
or. covering of true horn which, as is the case also 
with the horn forming the hoofs, is composed of ag- 
glutinated hairs developed from a papillary layer of 
the skin.^ 

In young animals this horny sheath is thickened 
by an epidermal layer that is shed as the animal grows 
older, leaving the horns smoother, and at the same 
time diminishing their size. In texture the horn form- 
ing the sheath of the horns, and the hoofs, seems to 
be correlated with the general bony skeleton, the coat, 
the skin, the flesh, and the organs of nutrition ; a 
clear, fine-grained texture being an indication of good 
feeding quality and a general refinement of the sys- 
tem ; while a coarse-grained, spongy texture indicates 
a poor feeder and a predominance of the coarser and 
less valuable parts of the carcass. Although the head 
is of but little value in the slaughtered animal, its 
peculiarities in the development of its appendages, as 
well as its form and proportions, may, through the 
correlations of structure, aid in forming an opinion in 
regard to the condition of other parts of the system 
that have a greater intrinsic value. 

* " Hand-Book of Zoology," by Van Der Hoeven, vol. ii., p. 650 ; 
" Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," vol. v., pp. 478-516 ; " Anat- 
omy of the Vertebrate Animals," by Huxley, p. 327 ; " Comparative 
Anatomy," by Wagner, p. 2. 



ANIMAL FORM AN INDEX OF QUALITIES. 373 

As the neck furnishes the butcher with cheap 
pieces only, it might at first glance appear that it 
should be as light as possible, to diminish the propor- 
tion of the coarser parts of the carcass. In practice, 
however, it will be found true that improvements in 
this direction have limits that cannot be safely passed. 
The neck should be short, but well developed at the 
base, to blend symmetrically with the chine and shoul- 
ders, and thus add to the value of the fore-quarter by 
increasing the thickness of flesh in parts that would 
otherwise be defective ; and it should also taper gradu- 
ally toward the head, without the development of a 
dewlap or other indications of coarseness. 

Dr. Finlay Dun says : " The distance between the 
ears and the angle of the jaw should be short, but the 
width behind the ears considerable — an important 
character in relation to health, as cattle with necks 
narrow and hollow behind the ears are defective in 
vigor. A well-developed neck also indicates vigor, 
and is especially necessary in the bull and in cattle in- 
tended for feeding. Many good milch-cows, however, 
have long fine necks ; and, on the other hand, no cow 
will ever be of much value for the dairy with a short 
thick neck." ' 

The thickness of the neck, particularly at the base, 
seems also to have a direct relation to the capacity of 
the chest, which the feeder will consider as one of the 
most important parts of the animal. Many breeders 
of mutton-sheep prefer a thick neck, as it is usually 
found in connection with a capacious chest and a vig- 
orpus constitution, and thick flesh along the back. The 

* Journal of the Royal Agrimltural Society^ vol. xv., p. 87. 



374: PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BFvEEDING. 

upper line of the neck should be well up to the line 
of the chine and loin, as a drooping neck is an indica- 
tion of poor feeding quality/ 

When the shoulders are too upright, there is often 
a deficiency in the crops, and the shoulder-points are 
liable to be prominent. If the shoulders are obhque 
and broad at the top, thej blend easily with the chine 
and crops ; and, when thickly covered with flesh 
throughout their entire surface, the points being ob- 
scured by the development of cellular tissue at the 
base of the neck, the fore-quarter will furnish a good 
proportion of valuable meat. It has been observed 
that, if the shoulders are extremely oblique and nar- 
row at the top, the upper part of the blade-bone is 
not likely to be well covered with flesh.'' 

The chest contains the lungs, the heart, and the 
larger blood-vessels, all of which have an important 
function to perform in the process of nutrition. 

The constitutional vigor, health, and feeding qual- 
ity of animals, will therefore depend upon the full de- 
velopment of these organs, and a capacious chest that 
will permit a free and vigorous performance of their 
functions. 

It is well known to breeders that animals with a 
small chest do not fatten readily,' and they are remark- 

^ Youatt on " Sheep," p. 418 ; Farmerh Magazine^ vol. xi., p. 98, 
vol. xl., p. 232 ; Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society^ vol. xvi., p. 
36, vol. vii., p. 208. 

2 Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, vol. vii., p. 208 ; Far- 
mer's Magazine, vol. xxxvii., p. 319 ; Welles's " Guide to Form in 
Cattle." 

^ Sir John Sebright's "Art of Improving Breeds," p. 22. W. F. 
Karkeek, V. S., has assumed, on theoretical grounds, that a capacious 



ANIMAL FORM AN INDEX OP QUALITIES. S76 

ably susceptible to the influence of exciting causes of 
disease. 

The brisket, in itself considered, is of but little 
value, but its form is nevertheless of great impor- 
tance. A narrow-pointed brisket may have a consider- 
able development in depth, and it may be prominent 
when viewed from the side, but it will usually be ac- 
companied with a chest that is too narrow at the base 
and lacking in depth behind the arm, a light fore-flank, 
and a deficiency in the development of muscle and cel- 
lular tissue between the base of the neck and the arm. 

Too often this form of brisket will be found in 
animals with upright shoulders and defective crops. 

When the brisket is broad, filling out the space on 
the inside of the arm in front, and its lower surface 
projects but little below the under-line of the body, 
the base of the chest will be well developed and its 
sides well covered with flesh, giving a good fore-flank ; 
and there will be, as a rule, a greater compactness and 
uniformity in the general symmetry of the fore-quar- 
ter, and a better quality of flesh. 

The hind-quarters present some peculiarities in 
the correlation of parts that are of particular interest 
to the breeder. 

An extreme illustration of this may be seen in 
what are popularly called "pumpkin-buttocks," "ly- 
ery," or " black-fleshed " cattle (Fig. 8). The loins of 
these animals are very narrow, and the rump corre- 

chest is incompatible with the rapid production of fat ; but, as this 
assumption is based on an exploded theory of respiration, it does not 
require further notice. {See Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society y 
vol. v., p. 255.) 



376 



PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 



spondingly short, the tail being set on qnite close to 
the line of the hips. The buttocks are remarkably 
full, forming a decided protuberance, that extends to 




the outer side of the thighs. "With this external con- 
formation will be found a deficiency in the formation 
of fat throughout the system, the kidneys being 



ANIMAL FORM AN INDEX OF QUALITIES. 377 

scarcely covered even in animals that have been high- 
ly fed, while the flesh is very dark-colored, coarse- 
grained, and of decidedly inferior flavor. 

When any one of the above-described peculiarities 
of external form is present in a marked degree, the 
others will in all probability be found to a greater or 
less extent, together with an inferior quality of flesh. 

In these cases it will be noticed that the best parts 
of the carcass are reduced to a minimum, and the 
coarsest parts are largely in excess. 

In the best-formed animals the hind-quarters pre- 
sent a marked contrast to the form we have had under 
consideration. The loins are long and wide, dimin- 
ishing the triangular space between the hips and the 
last ribs, and carrying the largest possible amount of 
choice flesh. 

The hips should be broad, and the rumps long 
and well-filled at the sides, between the hips and the 
points of the rump. The tail should be set on in a 
line with the back, its base being broad, from a devel- 
opment of the transverse processes, corresponding 
with a similar characteristic of the loins and sacrum ; 
while the cord, which, in its bony structure, consists 
of the bodies of the vertebrae only, should be fine, as 
an indication of small bones in the general skeleton. 

The quarters from the hips and rump to the thigh 
should represent a vertical plane, while the twist 
should be full and even, without any marked protu- 
berance of the buttocks. With this conformation will 
be found an abundance of fine-grained, valuable meat, 
while the inferior pieces will be reduced to a minimum. 

The Texan steer (Fig. 9) presents a marked con- 



378 



PEINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 



trast in its form and proportions to the best type for 
the production of meat. In animals like this some 




good flesh may be f oimd in the best parts ; but their 
value, on the whole, is materially diminished by the 
great preponderance of coarse parts in the carcass. 



ANIMAL FORM AN INDEX OF QUALITIES. 379 

The "handling," "touch," or "quality," although 
difficult to describe, furnishes valuable indications of 
many of the most important characteristics of an ani- 
mal. 

A delicacy of the sense of touch is required to 
make nice discriminations by this method of examina- 
tion, that can only be acquired by constant practice ; 
and a comparison of the handling of animals that pre- 
sent differences in the condition of the coat and skin 
will need to be frequently made to prevent errors in 
judgment in special cases. A knowledge of the phys- 
iological principles on which this method of examiaa- 
tion is based will be useful to the beginner, as it will 
enable him. to appreciate those slight variations in 
quality that might otherwise escape his attention, and 
to understand more fully what he may reasonably 
expect to learn from its practical applications. 

The activity of the capillary circulation, it is well 
known, is of the greatest importance in the processes 
of nutrition. If the materials that have been pre- 
pared by the organs of digestion for the nourishment 
of the system are not freely conveyed to every part of 
the organization, the best returns for feed consumed 
cannot be obtained. 

As the skin is abundantly supplied with capillary 
blood-vessels, an examination of its properties by the 
" touch " will furnish the best means of ascertaining 
the manner in which this part of the circulatory appa- 
ratus is performing its functions. 

If the capillary circulation is actively carried on 
in the skin, at the greatest possible distance from the 
large vessels of the systemic circulation, the internal 



380 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

parts of the organization that are more favorably situ- 
ated cannot fail to be abundantly supplied with the 
materials required for the renovation and increase of 
their tissues. 

What, then, are the indications of activity in the 
processes of circulation and assimilation in the skin 
that may be safely relied on as an index of the per- 
formance of these functions in other parts of the sys- 
tem? 

The experience of practical men has enabled them 
to give an answer to this question that is strictly in 
accordance with the principles of physiological sci- 
ence. 

Without a knowledge of the correlations of struct- 
ure and function in the animal economy, that render 
it possible to judge of the condition of one part of 
the system by an examination of another, they have 
found by long-continued observation and experience 
that the quality of flesh, ability to fatten rapidly, and 
constitutional vigor, are uniformly reflected in the 
peculiarities of the coat and skin. 

As it is difficult, if not impossible, to describe the 
slight variations in "touch" that represent marked 
differences in quality, so that they can be readily rec- 
ognized, without practical illustrations on the living 
animal, we can only give a general outline of the con- 
ditions to be observed, leaving the student to gain a 
knowledge of details by actual experience. The first 
point to which attention should be directed in apply- 
ing the test of " touch " is the hair, which we have 
already seen is correlated with the true horn of the 
horns and hoofs. 



ANIMAL FORM AN INDEX OF QUALITIES. 381 

A fine, long, and mossy coat, that is soft under 
tlie hand, is an indication of a good feeder, and the 
fat, as a rule, will be well distributed, giving a good 
quality of fine-grained, marbled flesh. If the coat is 
short and fine, the animal may feed well ; but there 
will be a tendency to the formation of internal fat, 
instead of that uniform distribution throughout the 
system that is desirable. 

A harsh, coarse, wiry coat is an indication of poor 
feeding quality and late maturity. 

In animals of good quality the skin is soft and 
elastic, of moderate thickness — the latter point, how- 
ever, varying somewhat with the breed — ^yielding 
readily to the fingers when the animal is in moderate 
condition, but increasing in firmness and substance as 
the animal " ripens," from the ample development of 
fat in the cellular tissue. 

A harsh, hard, and unyielding skin, in which the 
capillary circulation is always impaired, indicates a 
slow feeder and an inferior quality of flesh ; while, in 
the opposite extreme, a thin, flabby skin, that can be 
readily raised in loose folds, denotes a weak consti- 
tution, and soft, oily fat, in connection with coarse, 
stringy flesh, that is readily recognized on the block 
by its lack of firmness. In the last-described condi- 
tion the skin may be well supplied with capillary ves- 
sels ; but the circulation is not vigorous, and it is liable 
to be disturbed by the slightest exciting causes. The 
extremes of softness and harshness represent widely- 
different conditions of the circulation, that are not 
compatible with a vigorous and efficient performance 
of the function of nutrition. 



382 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

The principle of correlation may likewise be traced 
in animals that are used for work, or for the produc- 
tion of milk or of wool/ In these cases, however, 
the relations of particular parts to the general use- 
fulness of the animal for its special purpose, aside 
from the indications of constitutional vigor that are 
the same in all animals, have not been as fully de- 
termined as they have in the meat-producing breeds, 
so that there are many details of the organization 
that need more extended observation and study with 
reference to the applications of this law of the or- 
ganization. 

The kind and amount of labor that can best be 
performed by an animal will largely depend upon the 
proportions of its body and limbs. 

Temperament and constitutional power are of 
great importance in all forms of labor, as they deter- 
mine the efficiency of the power applied; but they 
cannot act to the best advantage unless the organs of 
locomotion are adapted by a proper proportion of 
their parts to the work they are required to do. 

The bones of the legs form a series of levers that 
are moved by appropriate muscles, which are in turn 
brought into activity through the influence of the 
nervous system. If the proportions and relative posi- 
tion of these levers make them act at the greatest 
disadvantage in the performance of a given task, the 
muscles that constitute the motive power, and the 

^ Virgil and Columella recognize the principle of correlation wlien 
they advise that a ram with a " black or spotted " tongue be rejected, 
as his lambs are liable to be spotted with black (Virgil, " Georgics," 
book iii., p. 80 ; Colvmiella's " Husbandry," book vii., chap, iii., p. 306). 



ANIMAL FORM AN INDEX OF QUALITIES. 383 

nervous system that brings tliem into action, will be 
subjected to a degree of tension that must impair 
tbeir ability to sustain continued action, and diminish 
their durabiKty. When great activity or a high rate 
of speed is required, the upper bones of the legs 
should be long and the lower bones comparatively 
short, together with an oblique shoulder that allows 
the greatest range of motion to the forearm. 

For heavy-draught purposes the shoulder may be 
more upright, as strength rather than freedom of 
motion is required. A broad, flat limb, with well- 
developed joints, will have advantages in leverage 
over one that is round, from the better position of 
the tendons that transmit the power supplied by the 
muscles. 

The so-called " milk- veins " of the dairy-cow are 
superficial blood-vessels, that represent in their devel- 
opment the general condition of the circulatory appa- 
ratus throughout the system, and the consequent ten- 
dency to the secretion of milk. The " escutcheon " 
of Guenon,^ although perhaps not so infallible an 
index of milking qualities as it has been claimed to 
be, is undoubtedly correlated with the milk-producing 
function, and may therefore be of use, in connection 
with other points^ in estimating the probable value of 
an animal for the dairy. From the complex relations 
of the various parts of the living animal, it will be 
seen that any single indication of quality cannot, in 
all cases, be assumed to represent the tendencies of 
the organization as a whole, for the obvious reason 
that the dominance of some other condition or charac- 

* Frequently called the " milk-mirror" by other writers. 



384 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

ter may obscure tlie relations existing between it and 
the organs with whicli it is correlated. 

A single illustration will be sufficient to explain 
the apparent exceptions to tbe law of coiTelated struct- 
ure and function tliat are frequently observed. A 
trotting horse, for example, with an extraordinary 
development of vital power, may be remarkable for 
its speed, notwithstanding a disproportion in its or- 
gans of locomotion, the defect in its structure being 
overcome by an excess of power. If, on the other 
hand, its limbs have the best possible proportions for 
rapid trotting, and its vital or nervous energy is defi- 
cient, it may fail in its performance, notwithstanding 
the perfection of its external conformation. 

It does not follow from cases like these that the 
proportions of the limbs are a matter of indifference 
in the development of a high rate of speed, as better 
results would undoubtedly have been obtained in both 
cases if the defect had not been present. 



CHAPTEE XYII. 

SELECTIOK-. 

The intelligent breeder will make a rigorous se- 
lection of breeding-stock in accordance with a well- 
defined and consistent standard of excellence. 

Wben Lord Kivers was asked how he succeeded 
in breeding such fine greyhounds, he replied, " I 
breed many, and hang many." ' 

The writer asked the late Edwin Hammond what 
proportion of the rams bred by himself he would be 
willing to use in his own flock, and he answered, 
promptly, " 'Not one in three hundred." 

Mr. Dickson, in his remarks on " Selection," says, 
" He will prove himseK the most successful breeder 
who can select with the most correct judgment ; " ' 
and it is undoubtedly true that the success of the 
masters of the art, who have made our improved 
breeds what they are, has been largely the result of 
the extraordinary judgment and skill with which they 
made their selections. 

Aside from the agencies that are made use of in 
improving the qualities of animals, which have been 
pointed out in the chapter on " Yariation," the art of 

* Gardener^ s Chronicle, 1853, p. 45. 

' Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. vii., p. 248. 



386 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

breeding may in fact be epitomized in tbe one word 
" selection," wMcb involves the application of every 
established principle of practice, and a consideration 
of the influence of every peculiarity of form. 

The animals selected must be adapted to some 
well-defined purpose in the system of management, 
and to the conditions in which they are placed. 

The principle that was first recognized in the 
selection of stock was the adaptation of size to the 
physical features of the farm, and the supply of feed. 
Columella notices the difference in form and disposi- 
tion of cattle and sheep arising from the conditions in 
which they are placed.' 

Fitzherbert, having in mind the same influence, 
says : " And take hede where thou byeste any leane 
cattel or fat, and of whom, and where it was bred. 
For if thou bye out of a better grounde than thou 
haste thy selfe, that cattel wyll not lyke with 
the." ' 

Thomas Hale, who wrote before the marked im- 
provement in the different breeds was made, says : 
" The husbandman should be acquainted with the 
several breeds, that he may suit his purchase to his 
land. The larger kinds are bred where there is good 
nourishment, and they require the same where they 
are kept, or they will decline ; the poorer and smaller 
kinds, which are used to hard fare, will thrive and 
fatten upon moderate land. 

" The husbandman is to remember here what we 
have said of trees : they never thrive if transplanted 

^ Columella, book vi., chap, i., p. 257, chap, ii., p. 304. 
2 " Boke of Husbandry" (1532), p. 46. 



SELECTION. 387 

out of a rich, into a poor soil : tlie same holds good 
of cattle. 

" The husbandman should have one of these con- 
siderations in view in stocking his land, the using 
them principally for breed, for milk, or for work; 
and according as either of these is his principal aim 
he is to make his purchase, one breed being fitter for 
one of these uses, another for another. 

" He must also consider the richness of his past- 
ures, that he may suit the breed to that also." * 

The experience of a Lammermuir sheep-master, as 
quoted by Mr. Youatt, furnishes a good illustration 
of the loss involved from lack of attention to the 
principle under discussion. He says : " I occupied a 
farm that had been rented by our family for nearly 
half a century. 

" On entering it, the Cheviot stock was the object 
of our choice, and, so long as we continued in posses- 
sion of this breed, everything proceeded with consid- 
erable success ; but the Dishley sheep came into fash- 
ion, and we, influenced by the general mania, cleared 
our farm of the Cheviots, and procured the favorite 
stock. Our coarse, lean pastures, however, were un- 
equal to the task of supporting such heavy-bodied 

* "A Compleat Body of Husbandry" (4 vols.), second edition, 1*758, 
vol. ii., p. 28. 

Donaldson, in his "Agricultural Biography," says: "This work 
was advertised by John Bell, of Edinburgh .... but no other notice 
of the book can be found. . . . The 'Bibliotheca Britannica' does 
not contain a book of that title among the works of that author. The 
libraries of the British Museum do not possess any book of that title, 
and Loudon's catalogue mentions no author of that name." The quo- 
tation in the text is made from a copy of the work in my library. 



388 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

sheep, and they gradually dwindled away into less 
and less bulk; each generation was inferior to the 
preceding one ; and, when the spring was severe, sel- 
dom more than two-thirds of the lambs could survive 
the ravages of the storm." * 

Another striking example of the same kind is 
related by Mr. T. EUman, who says : " A remarkable 
case in point occurred in France some years ago, 
when I sent some Leicester sheep to a French farmer. 
The ewes, sixty in number, were purchased of Mr. 
Golding, of Beddington; the rams, four yearlings, 
from Sir C. Knightly. 

" The wool of these sheep was enormously heavy ; 
the ewes cut ten pounds each, the rams fourteen 
pounds each. These sheep being managed after the 
fashion of the E"ormans, the wool grew less every 
year, that of their progeny still lighter. In six years 
they clipped only three pounds of very bad wool; 
the fourth generation became long-legged, their 
bodies differing from the original stock, but resem- 
bling the native-bred I^orman sheep, with which they 
had no relationship. After this failure a South- 
down ram was used, and the stock improved. Yet 
they soon mingled with the common flocks of the 
country, it being found impossible to maintain these 
Leicester sheep upon poor soils with bad manage- 
ment." ' 

With reference to size, it will, without doubt, be 
best to follow the advice of the author of the " Eeport 

^ " On the Breeding of Cheviot and Black-faced Sheep, by a Lam- 
mermuir Farmer," p. 66 ; quoted in Youatt on "Sheep," p. 325. 
2 Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 1865, p. 406. 



SELECTION. 389 

on the Agriculture of Argyleshire," ^ and make selec- 
tions of animals that are rather under than over the 
required standard, as there will then be a reasonable 
prospect of improvement, and a better profit from 
liberal feeding. 

The larger breeds, on farms that are naturally pro- 
ductive, have, however, in many instances proved a 
failure, from defects in the system of management. 
It cannot, with reason, be expected that the larger 
improved breeds will return a satisfactory profit when 
subjected to the same treatment that the common 
stock receives on the average farms of the country ; 
and it is also quite certain that the effects of such 
management will be manifest in a rapid deterioration 
in then* most valuable characteristics. 

The high development of special qualities in our 
improved breeds, which have been obtained, as we 
have shown, by artificial treatment, has unavoidably 
diminished their hardiness, and unfitted them to with- 
stand the effects of privation and exposure. 

In the process of " natural selection " that prevails 
among wild species, those that are feeble or unhealthy 
die from exposure, and the masters of the herd attain 
their position by their superior strength and powers 
of endurance. The standard of excellence in such 
cases is constitutional stamina and power, and the ele- 
ments of deterioration are strictly excluded. 

* " Survey of Argyleshire," p. 242. See also on the same subject 
Low's " Domestic Animals," p. 264 ; Lawrence on *' Cattle," p. 27 ; 
Coventry's "Agriculture," p. 182; "Complete Grazier" (sixth edi- 
tion), p. 36 ; " Code of Agriculture," by Sinclair, pp. 96-100 ; " Survey 
of Middlesex," p. 407 ; Cline on " Breeding and Form," p. 12. 



390 PRINCIPLES OP STOCK-BREEDING. 

In the improYement of all domesticated varieties 
tliat are not intended for work, selections are made on 
a different basis, that is not favorable to the develop- 
ment of the greatest constitutional vigor. Take the 
meat-producing breeds, for example, and examine care- 
fully the tendencies of the process of improvement. 
Early maturity is required, and a liberal system of 
feeding is practised ; the wants of the animal are anti- 
cipated, and it is protected from i;he inclemencies of 
the seasons. The animal must have a quiet disposi- 
tion to be a good feeder, and the treatment it receives 
tends to promote a habit of " masterly inactivity." 

The best quahty of flesh and a large proportion of 
choice parts are desirable, and a certain refinement of 
the system is the result of the efforts to obtain them. 

Thus, step by step as we trace the process of im- 
provement, we find the required conditions are unfa- 
vorable to the development or retention of constitu- 
tional vigor. 

It is asserted by Prof. Tanner that, in the im- 
proved breeds, " the lungs and liver are found to be 
considerably reduced in size when compared with 
those possessed by animals having perfect liberty ; " * 
and this he attributes to the lack of active exercise, 
which is required for the symmetrical development of 
the system. 

The breeder must not lose sight of the tendency 
to undesirable variations in making his selections, or 
the defects of his stock may impair or even overbal- 
ance the advantages arising from their good qualities. 

^ " Transactions of the Highland Agricultural Society," 1859-61, p. 

322. 



SELECTION. 391 

The dimimition of hardiness that results from the 
development of the best feeding quality must not be 
allowed to proceed so far as to become a predisposing 
cause of disease. 

Any inherited predisposition to disease must in like 
manner be carefully avoided, and the best sanitary con- 
ditions should prevail in the system of management. 

The milking qualities of the meat-producing 
breeds have been too generally neglected, and many 
breeders have been led to believe that the tendency to 
lay on fat is directly antagonistic to the secretion of 
milk; and that there is an incompatibility in the 
active exercise of these two functions. This extreme 
view of the relations of the two functions is based 
upon certain well-ascertained facts, that do not, how- 
ever, represent the whole truth. 

If the attention of the breeder is directed exclu- 
sively to the development of either of these functions, 
the effect will be to diminish the activity of the other ; 
and it is also well known that the peculiarities of 
form that indicate the best feeding quality are not the 
same as those obtained when the production of milk 
is the leading or sole object, the natural correlations 
of form and function in the two cases being quite 
different. 

These facts do not, however, warrant the assump- 
tion that the two qualities, in a high degree of excel- 
lence, cannot be combined in the same animal. The 
possibility of such a combination of characters has 
been abundantly demonstrated by experience. Quite 
a number of animals, representing several different 
breeds and their grades, have come under my observa- 



392 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

tion, in which, good feeding qualities were associated 
with more than average excellence for the purposes 
of the dairy ; and there are many similar instances on 
record. 

Where a combination of the two qualities is the 
object, one of them should be made the leading or 
dominant character, by selections, with reference to 
form, in accordance with the law of correlation ; while 
the other or secondary quality is secured through the 
influence of modified habits, that are ingrafted, as it 
were, upon the typical characteristics of the leading 
quality. For example, if the production of meat is 
the leading object, selections should be made to secure 
the form and proportions that experience has shown 
to be the best adapted to that particular purpose; 
while the abundant secretion of milk, which is the 
secondary object, may be developed as a habit of the 
system, notwithstanding the bias of the organization, 
from peculiarities of form, to the production of flesh. 

A different typical form will be desirable when 
milk is the leading object. But with it the feeding 
quality may be developed to a considerable extent by 
an abundant supply of feed, without detracting from 
the value of the animal for the purposes of the dairy. 
In both of these typical forms, in which the com- 
bined qualities are developed, the energies of the sys- 
tem may be largely devoted to the secretion of milk 
during the period of lactation, and at other times to 
the production of flesh, so that there is an alternation 
in the exercise of the two functions that adds to their 
efficiency, from the concentration of the powers of 
assimilation upon a single function. 



SELECTION. 393 

Tlie combination of two qualities tliat are corre- 
lated with opposite peculiarities of form does not dis- 
prove the law of correlation, or diminish the practical 
value of its application. The physiological tendencies 
of the system, arising from correlations of form and 
function, are important aids to the breeder in devel- 
oping a single character or quality in harmony with 
them ; but he may nevertheless succeed in developing 
and retaining certain qualities, that are not strictly in 
harmony with the peculiarities of form, through the 
superior influence of modified habits and judicious 
selection. 

Sir John Sebright recognizes this principle when 
he says : " It is well known that a particular forma- 
tion generally indicates a disposition to get fat, in all 
sorts of animals ; but this rule is not universal, for we 
sometimes see animals of the most approved forms 
who are slow feeders^ and whose flesh is of a bad qual- 
ity, which the graziers easily ascertain by the touchP * 

Such cases are undoubtedly rare ; but their occa- 
sional occurrence is sufficient to show that the law of 
correlation may become latent in particular details 
through a preponderance of other influences. 

From the plasticity of the animal organization, 
and its susceptibility to variation under the influence 
of surrounding conditions and methods of manage- 
ment, the breeder is enabled to obtain not only such 
modifications of any single characters as he may de- 
sire, but a combination of qualities which at first sight 
might appear to be incompatible. 

The relation of the function of rej)roduction to the 

» " Art of Breeding," p. 21. 



394 PKINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

secretion of milk, that has already been noticed, should 
not be overlooked in this connection, as an improve- 
ment in the exercise of one of these functions maj 
have a tendency to increase the activity of the other. 
It is frequently more difficult to avoid defects than 
to secure a predominance of desirable qualities. Sir 
John Sebright very truly says : " We must observe 
the smallest tendency to imperfection in our stock the 
moment It appears, so as to be able to counteract it 
before it becomes a defect, as a rope-dancer, to pre- 
serve his equilibrium, must correct the balance before 
it is gone too far, and then not by such a motion as 
will incline it too much to the opposite side. The 
breeder's success will depend entirely upon the degree 
in which he may happen to possess this particular 
talent." ' 

The impaired fecundity of certain families in the 
improved breeds may be attributed to the neglect of 
this principle. 

As the fecundity of animals is determined to a 
great extent by heredity, selections from prolific fami- 
lies will be found advantageous, while the opposite 
practice will finally result in disappointment. 

Animals having the same constitutional tenden- 
cies, and kept under the same artificial conditions, 
may fail to breed when coupled together ; but, as they 
prove fertile when coupled with animals of other 
families, the procreative function has not been lost, 
but made latent by conditions unfavorable to its action. 

It has been suggested by Sir John Sebright ' that 

^ "Art of Breeding," p. 6. 

2 Ibid., pp. 16, 17 ; " American Cattle," by R. L. Allen, p. 206. 



SELECTION. 395 

it would be desirable to separate closely-related ani- 
mals, and subject tbem to different conditions of food 
and climate, that their development in all particulars 
should not be the same. A tendency to a loss of fe- 
cundity may be corrected by this method ; but the 
conditions to which the animals are subjected should 
not differ so widely as to destroy the characteristics 
of the family that it is desirable to retain. 

A defective performance of the function of repro- 
duction may frequently be corrected by suitable selec- 
tions within the family, without resorting to a change 
of conditions or an infusion of other blood. 

As an illustration of the manner in which the 
latent function is made active, let us take the case of 
two animals, kept under the same conditions, that are 
closely related, so that their dominant characteristics 
are essentially the same. 

The male may exhibit the family defect of a ten- 
dency to impaired fecundity ; while the female, with 
the same general bias of the system, may be a good 
milker. 

When bred together, the acquired quality of se- 
creting an abundant supply of milk may supplement 
the conditions that give rise to the family defect, and 
restore the balance of the organization, so that the 
function that was comparatively latent in the parents 
may become active in their offspring. 

It has been claimed that Duke of Airdrie (12730) 
(see Diagram 2) owes his superiority as a sire to char- 
acters inherited in accordance with this principle. 

Duke of Gloster (11382), his sire, was not remark- 
ably prolific, and there was a marked peculiarity in 



396 PEINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

the character of his offspring : the bulls, which were 
■aniformly good, seemed to inherit the qualities of 
their grandsire. Grand Duke (10284), a superior ani- 
mal ; while the heifers, which were not so good, re- 
sembled their grandam. Duchess of Athol, the dam 
of Duke of Airdrie (12730), was a superior animal, 
and an excellent breeder. 

Duke of Airdrie proved a good getter of both 
males and females, the defects of his sire having been 
apparently supplemented by the good qualities of his 
dam, although they were closely related, so that his 
inherited qualities were fully in equiKbrium. 

From the practical difficulty of making selections 
with reference to peculiarities that would properly 
supplement each other, it has been proposed to select 
animals that resemble each other closely in the essen- 
tial or constant characters of the family, but that differ 
in the variable or non-essential characters : as, for in- 
stance, in the Short-Horns a difference in the color 
of the parents, that are alike in other particulars, may 
aid in restoring an impaired condition of the procrea- 
tive functions by supplementing the divergent char- 
acters. 

" Regard should not only be paid to the qualities 
apparent in animals selected for breeding, but to those 
which have prevailed in the race from which they are 
descended, as they will always show themselves, sooner 
or later, in the progeny ; it is for this reason that we 
should not breed from an animal, however excellent, 
unless we can ascertain it to be what is called well 
hred, that is, descended from a race of ancestors who 
have, through several generations, possessed in a 



SELECTION. 397 

high degree the properties which it is our object to 
obtain." ' 

The importance of pedigree in the stndy of ances- 
tral characters need only be noticed in this connection, 
as it has been discussed in the preceding chapters. 

In order to avoid any undesirable atavic tendency, 
Sir John Sebright recommends as an additional pre- 
caution to " try the young males with a few females, 
the quahty of whose produce has been already ascer- 
tained ; by this means we shall know the sort of stock 
they get, and the description of females to which they 
are best adapted." ^ 

As the male, from the number of his progeny, has 
a preponderating influence in determining the charac- 
teristics of the flock or herd, the greatest care should 
be exercised in his selection. 

He should be more highly bred than the females 
with which he is coupled, to insure prepotency in the 
transmission of his qualities, and his merits as an indi- 
vidual should add to the reputation of the long line 
of ancestry from which he is descended. 

Breeders of pure-bred stock are aware of the im- 
portance of securing males of extraordinary excellence 
in every respect, and high prices are accordingly paid 
for the best representatives of favorite families. 

Those who use males of their own breeding select 

1 "Art of Breeding,"?. 7. 

2 Zoc. cit, p. 7. {See also Sinclair's " Code of Agriculture," p. 98.) 
According to Arthur Young, it was the practice of the late Duke of 

Bedford to place " every ram with the lambs got by him the preceding 
year, in distinct pens, that he might not only examine the ram himself, 
but also his progeny, before he determined what ewes to draw off for 
him" ("Farmer's Calendar," p. 568). 



398 PEINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

them from a family that is more higlily bred than the 
rest of their stock. 

It seems to be the prevailing opinion that almost 
any pure-bred male will answer the purpose of those 
who are breeding grades, and comparatively few think 
of making their selection in accordance with any defi- 
nite system. 

In the improvement of grade-stock the breeder 
should have clearly-defined ideas of the kind of ani- 
mal he would produce, and the rules of the art that 
have been established by the breeders of pure-bred 
animals will be found the safest guides in his practice. 

High-bred males, of the particular type it is pro- 
posed to establish, will impress their own characteris- 
tics upon their offspring with greater certainty and 
uniformity than those that, although of pure blood, 
have been bred from an admixture of a variety of 
elements without reference to any definite standard. 

Even for the purpose of improving grades it will 
be found more profitable to select a high-bred animal 
of superior merit than to use one that cost half the 
money, whose qualities are not so well defined. 

As the dangers of in-and-in breeding are not so 
great in breeding grades (a pure-bred sire always being 
used) as in breeding pure-bred stock, a well-bred male 
that is free from defects may be used upon his own 
get with advantage, while a similar practice with an 
inferior animal would not be desirable. In some of 
the best grade-herds that have come under my obser- 
vation, in-and-in breeding (on the part of the sire) has 
been practised for several generations without any 
indications of unfavorable results. The sires in these 



SELECTION. 399 

cases have been animals of strong constitution, and 
apparently free from inherited predisposition to dis- 
ease. 

In the improvement of grades, as well as pure-bred 
animals, the selection of breeding-stock must go hand- 
in-hand with a judicious system of feeding and man- 
agement, as the artificial characters which are im- 
pressed by the male upon his offspring can only be 
retained through the influence of essentially the same 
conditions that originally produced them. 



CHAPTEE XYIII. 

PEEIOD OF GESTATIOIT. 

The duration of the period of gestation in mam- 
mals is apparently determined by various causes that 
we are as yet, from the obscurity of their action, un- 
able to define. 

That it bears some relation to the size of the ani- 
mal is shown by the following instances, which have 
been compiled from various sources ; ^ and Mr. Darwin 
states that it has been observed in Germany that " the 
period of gestation is longer in large-sized than in 
small-sized breeds of cattle." ^ 

The period of gestation is approximately as fol- 
lows : Elephant, twenty to twenty-three months ; 
giraffe, fourteen months ; dromedary, twelve months ; 
buffalo, different varieties, from ten to twelve months ; 
ass, twelve months ; mare, eleven months ; cow, two 
hundred and eighty-five days ; bear, six months ; rein- 

' Van Der Hoeven's " Zoology," vol. ii. ; "jEconomische neugikund 
Yerhandl," quoted in Johnson's " Farmer's Cyclopaedia," and Quarterly 
Journal of Agriculture^ vol. x., p. 287; Dunglison's "Human Physiol- 
ogy ; " Johnson's " Cyclopaedia," article " Gestation," by Dr. E, R. 
Peaslee; "Encyclopaedia Britannica," article "Animal Kingdom," by 
Prof. Wilson. 

* "Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. ii., p. 387. 



PERIOD OF GESTATION. 401 

deer, eight months ; monkeys, seven months ; sheep 
and goat, five months; sow, four months; beaver, 
four months ; lion, one hundred and eight days ; puma, 
seventy-nine days; dog, fox, and wolf, sixty-two to 
sixty-three days ; cat, fifty days ; rabbit, thirty days ; 
squirrel and rat, twenty-eight days ; Guinea-pig, twenty- 
one days. 

A similar relation may be traced in the period of 
incubation in birds, which is as follows : Turkey, 
twenty-six to thirty days ; Gruinea-hen, twenty-five to 
twenty-six days ; pea-hen, twenty-eight to thirty days ; 
ducks, twenty-five to thirty-two days ; geese, twenty- 
seven to thirty-three days ; hens, nineteen to twenty- 
four days, or an average of twenty-one ; pigeons, six- 
teen to twenty days ; canary-birds, thirteen to four- 
teen days. Mr. "Wright remarks that " cold weather, 
or a prevailing east wind, will lengthen the time a 
day or more, while warm weather and an attentive 
sitter will hasten it ; stale eggs also hatch later than 
fresh." ' 

He also states that the small breeds require less 
time than the large breeds ; " Hamburgs generally 
hatch at the expiration of the twentieth day, and 
Game Bantams often even on the nineteenth." Man- 
darin and Wood ducks " usually hatch in about twen- 
ty-five days ; but something depends upon whether the 
eggs are set under hens which, owing to the greater 
heat of their bodies (at least we suppose so, reason- 
ing generally), hatch from one to two days earlier 
than if the same eggs are set under their natural 
parent." " 

» " Book of Poultry," p. 49. 2 Xoc. cit, p. 556. 

18 



402 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

The period of incubation is said to be shortened 
when liens' and ducks' eggs are set under a turkey/ 

The following statistics will indicate the variations 
that are liable to occur in the period of gestation of 
different animals. M. Tessier, who continued his ob- 
servations for forty years,'^ has made the most valuable 
collection of facts in relation to this subject, which 
will be quoted under their appropriate heads. 

According to Youatt, the average period of ges- 
tation in the mare is eleven months, but it may be 
diminished five weeks or extended six weeks.' 

Of 582 mares reported by M. Tessier, the shortest 
period was 287 days, the longest 419, and the average 
330 days.* 

M. Gayot has recorded the period of gestation for 
twenty-five mares, the shortest period being 324 days, 
the longest 367 days, and a mean of 343 days.^ 

It will be noticed that the range of variation is 
less in the cases observed by M. Gayot, while the 
average period exceeds that of M. Tessier's observa- 
tion thirteen days. Of 575 cows observed by M. 
Tessier — 

21 calved between the 240th and 270th days, the mean time 

being 259 days. 
544 calved between the 270th and 299th days, the mean time 

being 282 days. 

1 "Farmer's Cyclopaedia," p. 562; Quartei'ly Journal of Agricult- 
ure, vol. X., p. 287. 

' Carpenter's " Human Physiology," p. 983. 

8 " The Horse," p. 222. 

4 Johnson's *' Farmer's Cyclopaedia," p. 562 ; " Encyclopedie pra- 
tique de I'Agriculteur," vol. viii., p. 298. 

6 Ibid. 



PERIOD OF GESTATION. 



403 



10 calved between the 299tli and 321st days, the mean time 
being 303 days.* 

The extremes here given were not changed when 
the number observed was extended to 1,131 animals, 
but the results as to the average are not stated.'' 

Earl Spencer has recorded the period of gestation 
in 764 cows with the following result : Least period, 
220 days ; mean, 285 days ; longest period, 313 days. 
But he remarks that he has " not been able to rear 
any calf produced at an earlier period than 242 days." ' 

As the table published by Earl Spencer is of inter- 
est in many particulars, it is copied in full : 



Number of Days 
of Gestation. 



Cow- 
Calves. 



Bull- 
Cslvei. 



Twin Cow- 
Calves. 



Twin Bull- 
Calvei. 



Twin Cow 
and Bull 
Calves. 



220. 
226. 
233. 
234. 
235. 
239. 
242. 
245. 
246. 
248. 
250. 
252. 
253. 
2.54. 
255. 
25T. 
258. 
259. 
262. 
263. 
266. 



270. 
271. 
272. 
273. 



^ " British Husbandry," vol. ii., p. 438 ; " The Complete Grazier," 
p. 47. 

« Youatt on " Cattle," p. 52Y. 

2 Journal of the Royal Agricultural Societi/f vol. i., pp. 166, 167. 



404 



PrvINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 



Number of Days 
of Gestation. 


Cows. 


Cow- 
Calvea. 


Bull- 
Calves. 


Twin Cow- 
Calves. 


Twin Bull- 

Calves. 


Twin Cow 
and Bull 
Calves. 


274 


5 

5 

15 

14 

18 

82 

85 

39 

47 

54 

66 

74 

60 

52 

42 

45 

23 

31 

16 

10 

8 

7 

6 

2 

1 

1 

1 

3 

1 

1 


'2 
7 
10 
11 
16 
15 
20 
26 
30 
83 
29 
22 
25 
13 
20 
10 
9 
5 

\ 

3 
2 

1 

'i 

1 

8 
1 
1 


5 

2 

6 

2 

4 

11 

20 

18 

20 

24 

83 

43 

38 

27 

28 

25 

13 

22 

11 

9 

7 

4 

4 

1 

1 


'i 
1 

8 


*i 
1 

•• 

•• 




275 




276 


i 


277 


1 


278 


2 


279 


2 


2S0 




281 

282 


1 


2S3 




284 




285 


2 


286 




287 




288 




239 




290 




291 




2:)2 




293 




294 




295 




296 




297 




299 . . 




304 




805 




306. . 




807 




813 


•• 



L. F. Allen reports the period of gestation in fifty 
cows for a single year as follows : Shortest period, 
268 days ; mean, 284 days ; and longest period, 291 
days.' 

These cows were " Short-Horns, Herefords, Dev- 
ons, and their grades, and common ones;" but no 
difference was noticed that conld be attributed to the 
breed. 

C. N^. Bement ^ reports the period of gestation for 
^ve years in his herd of cows, consisting of " Durham, 
Devon, Hereford, Ayrshires, and grades," which will 
be found in the following table : 

^ " American Cattle," p. 253. 
» The Cultivator, 1845, p. 207. 



PERIOD OF GESTATION. 



405 





No. of 
Cows. 


cow CALVES. 


BXTLL CALVES. 


YEAR. 


No. 


Shortest 
Period. 


Longest 
Period. 


Average 
Period. 


No. 


Shortest 
Period. 


Longest 
Period. 


Average 
Period. 


1839 

1840 

1841 

1842 

1843 


14 
13 
11 
13 
11 

62 


8 

6 

8 
4 
5 


'213 
27T 

280 
276 


*336 

292 
2S6 
286 


2S4 
278 
286 

284 
282 


11 

7 

9 
6 

36" 


'278 
284 
231 
277 


'289 
299 
294 
290 


280 
299 
293 
2ST 

282 


Total.... 


26 






283 






288 



Mr. Bement had " doubts as to the correctness " 
of the shortest period given — 213 days — which is evi- 
dently an error, as he has in no other instance ob- 
served a period " below 260 days." 

The minimum of Mr. Bement's observations, if 
not an error, must be considered decidedly premature. 

In M. Tessier's observations on sheep,' of 912 
ewes — 

140 lambed between the 146th and the 150th days; mean time, 

148 days. 
676 lambed between the 150th and the 154th days ; mean time, 

152 days. 
96 lambed between the 154th and the 161st days ; mean time, 

157 days. 

In 420 ewes under the observation of M. Magne, 
at Alfort, the period of gestation was — 



149 days for 

148 " " 

150 " " 
147 " " 

151 " " 
146 " " 

152 •' " 



80 
68 
55 
55 
49 
80 
23 



1 " The Complete Grazier," p. 238 ; " British Husbandry," vol. ii., 
p. 457 ; Youatt on " Sheep," p. 496. 



406 



PEINCIPLES OF STOCK-BKEEDING. 



145 days for 

144 " " 

153 " " 

154 " " 
156 *' " 
143 " " 



15 

13 

7 

3 



The extremes being 143 and 156 days, and the 
entire period in three-fifths of the flock from 147 to 
150 days/ 

In 1814 and 1815 M. Morel de Yinde recorded 
the period of gestation in 462 ewes as follows : 

118 

97 

81 

50 

42 

31 

18 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

In more than three-fifths of these ewes the dura- 
tion of gestation was from 151 to 153 days, or from 
three to four days longer than in the cases observed 
by M. Magne, and the extreme periods — 146 and 157 
days — are likewise more prolonged. 

These variations in the length of the period in the 
two flocks may be attributed to a difference in breed, 
or in the system of management, or possibly to local 
influences." 

^ " Encyclopedie pratique de I'Agriculteur," tome x., p. 483. 
* Ibid. 



153 


days 


152 




151 




150 




154 




149 




155 




14-8 




156 




157 




147 




146 








PERIOD OF GESTATION. 40T 

Mr. Darwin states/ on the authority of E'athusius, 
'' that merino and Southdown sheep, when both have 
long been kept under exactly the same conditions, 
differ in the average period of gestation, as seen in 
the following table : 

Merinos ... , . . 150.3 days. 

SouthdowQS . .. . . 144.2 " 

Half-bred merino and Southdown . 146.3 " 
Three -fourths blood of Southdowns . 145.5 " 

Seven-eighths " " " . 144.2 " 

The average period of gestation in swine is about 
sixteen weeks. The extremes observed by M. Tessier 
in twenty-five sows were 109 and 123 days ; ' and Mr. 
Fox has reported " ten carefully-recorded cases with 
well-bred pigs in which the period varied from 101 
to 116 days.' 

M. Tessier " observes that the extent of gestation 
is in many species extremely various, and that its pro- 
longation does not seem to depend upon the age or 
constitution of the female, or upon the diet, breed, or 
season, or, in short, upon any known cause." * 

It is, however, at least probable that the period of 
gestation is shorter in the breeds that mature early, 
and this may be the explanation of the difference 

^ "Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. i., p. 123. 

2 Darwin, " Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. i., p. 
95 ; Youatt on " The Hog," p. 154. 

In " The Complete Grazier," p. 299, and in " British Husbandry," 
vol. ii., p. 511, the extremes observed by M. Tessier are stated at 109 
and 143 days ; but this is evidently an error. 

^ " Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. i., p. 95. 

* "British Husbandry," vol. ii., p. 511; "The Complete Grazier," 
p. 299. 



4:08 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

observed in merino and Southdown sheep that has 
been noticed. 

In swine, " according to E'athnsius, the period is 
shortest in the races which come early to maturity ; 
but in these latter the course of development does not 
appear to be actually shortened, for the young animal 
is born, judgiDg from the state of the skull, less fully 
developed or in a more embryonic condition than in 
the case of common swine, which arrive at maturity 
at a later age.^ 

It seems to be the general opinion that the period 
of gestation is longer with male than with female off- 
spring ; ^ but there appears to be no sufficient evidence 
on record to warrant such a conclusion. 

In the observations of Mr. Bement, from " those 
cows that exceeded 286 days, the number of females 
was seven, while that of the males was twelve. The 
number of female calves produced under 283 days 
was twenty-four, while that of the males was thirty- 
one." ' There was thus a larger proportion of males 
in the periods above and below what may be consid- 
ered an average, and it is worthy of remark that the 
produce in the longest-observed period was a heifer. 

The average period was the same for males and 
females in 1845, was longer for females in 1839, and 
longer for males in the three remaining years. The 
average for the five years was 288 days for males and 
283 days for females. 

^ Darwin, " Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. i., p. 96. 
" " British Husbandry," vol. ii., p. 438 ; RandaU's " Practical Shep- 
herd," p. 207. 

3 The Culiivaior, 1845, p. 207. 



PERIOD OF GESTATION. 4,09 

Earl Spencer was inclined to believe that his ob- 
servations show that " there is some foundation for 
this opinion. . . . 

" In order fairly to try this," he says, " the cows 
calved before the 260th day and those who calved 
after the 300th ought to be omitted as being anoma- 
lous cases, as well as the cases in which twins were 
produced ; and it will then appear that, from the 
cows whose period of gestation did not exceed 286 
days, the number of cow-calves produced was 233 
and the number of bull-calves 234 ; while, from those 
whose period exceeded 286 days, the number of cow- 
calves was only 90, while the number of bull-calves 
was 152." ' 

He neglects, however, to notice that in the entire 
number of births, omitting the twins, there were but 
340 cow-calves to 401 bull-calves, or a large prepon- 
derance of males ; and that all the calves born after 
the 300th day were females, while of those born be- 
fore the 260th day ten were cow-calves and fifteen 
bull-calves. 

M. Magne, on the contrary, found the period of 
gestation longer with ewe-lambs than with ram-lambs, 
and this he attributes to the greater development of 
the males previous to birth.'' 

The duration of gestation seems to depend also to 
some extent upon heredity. " It was ascertained by 
the late Earl Spencer that of seventy-five cows in calf 
by a particular buU, the average period was 288|- days 
instead of 280, none of them having gone less than 

* Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, vol. i., p. 168. 

* " Encyclopedie pratique de I'Agriculteur," tome x., p. 485. 



410 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

281 days, and two-fifths of them having exceeded 289 
days." ' 

From the facts that have been presented it appears 
that the size, early maturity, and inherited tendencies, 
may all have an influence in determining the duration 
of gestation. 

The wide range of variations that occur in the 
same family, and even in individuals, seems to indi- 
cate that there are other and perhaps more efficient 
influences that have escaped our attention. 
^ Carpenter's " Human Physiology," p. 982. 



APPEIfDIX 



The following examples of the form of record in 
the different herd-books are given for the benefit of 
persons not familiar with pedigrees. 

Short-Horn pedigrees : 

"(14837) Lord of the Yallet. 

Red, calved August 30, 1856, bred by Mr. R. Booth, 
Warlaby; got by Crown Prince (10087), dam (Red 
Rose) by Harbinger (10297), g. d. (Medora) by Buck- 
ingham (3239), gr. g. d. (Monica) by Raspberry (4875), 
— (White Strawberry) by Rockingham (2551), — by 
Young Alexander (2977), — by Pilot (496), — by the 
Lame Bull (359), — by Easby (232), — by Suwarrow 
(636)."— (" English Short-Horn Herd-Book," vol. xii., 
p. 137.) 

" 9798 Duke of Airdrie. (12730) 

[ J7ie original progenitor of the American Dukes of Airdrie, called in 
Kentucky ' Tlie Old Duke.'] 

Red and white, bred by R. A. Alexander, Airdrie, Scot- 
land, and imported to his farm in Woodford Co., Ky., 
calved Aug. 4, 1854, got by imp. Duke of Gloster, 2763 



412 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

(11382), out of Duchess of Athoi, by 2d Duke of Ox- 
ford (9046), — Duchess 54th, by 2d Cleveland Lad 
(3408), — Duchess 49th, by Short Tail (2621), — 
Duchess 30th, by 2d Hubback (1423), — Duchess 20th, 
by 2d Earl (1511), — Duchess 8th, by Marske (418), — 
Duchess 2d, by Ketton 1st (709), — Duchess 1st, by 
Comet (155), — by Favorite (252), — by Daisy Bull 
(186), — by Favorite (252), — by Hubback (319), -^ 
the Stanwick cow, by J. Brown's Red Bull (97)." 

Allen's "American Short-Horn Herd-Book," vol. x., 
p. 107. 

Numbers in parentheses refer to "English Herd- 
Book," open numbers to the " American Herd-Book." 

"171 Duke of Aikdrie. (12730) 

Red and white, calved August 4, 1854 ; bred by, and 
the property of, Mr. R. A. Alexander, Airdrie House, 
Airdrie ; got by Duke of Gloster 175, d. (Duchess of 
Athol) by 2d Duke of Oxford 180, g. d. (Duchess 54) 
by 2d Cleveland Lad 123, — (Duchess 49th) by Short 
Tail 498, — (Duchess 30th) by 2d Hubback 281, — 
(Duchess 20th) by the 2d Earl 183, — (Duchess 8th) 
by Marske 358, — (Duchess 2d) by Ketton 1st, 305, — 
(Duchess 1st) by Comet 128, — by Favourite 204, — 
by Daisy Bull 151, — by Favourite 204, — by Hubback 
280, — by Mr. James Brown's Red Bull 80."— (Alexan- 
der's " Short-Horn Record," vol. i., p. 27.) 

By comparing these pedigrees with the diagrams on 
pages 147 and 142 it will be seen that they are given in 
an abbreviated form in the herd-books, and that each 
animal appearing in the record must be separately traced 
to obtain a complete list of the ancestors. 

It will also be observed that the original numbers of 



APPE]ST)IX. ^ 413 

the bulls are used in the " American Herd-Book," while 
new numbers are assigned them in Alexander's " Short- 
Horn Record." 

The dash ( — ) is used in each of the forms given to 
indicate the "next dam," and thus save space in the 
record. 

Hereford pedigrees : 

" 376 CoTMORE w. F., calved 1836, bred by the late 
Mr. T. Jeffries, by Old Sovereign (404), dam by Lottery 
(410). At Mrs. Jeffries's sale 1844 Cotmore was bought 
in for £100 ; he won, at different times, the prizes for 
two-year-old, three-year-old, and aged bulls at Hereford ; 
and the first prize for Hereford bulls at the meeting of 
the Royal Agricultural Society at Oxford ; Cotmore's 
dam, at the Grove sale 1844, was sold for £33."— (" The 
Herd-Book of Hereford Cattle," vol. i., p. 52. 8ee page 
164 for extended pedigree.) 



" (3434) Sir Charles. 

Red with white face, calved February 14, 1867 ; bred 
by and the property of Mr. F. W. Stone, Moreton Lodge, 
Guelph, Canada ; got by Guelph (2023), dam (Graceful) 
by Severn (1382), g. d. (Lady) by Albert Edward (859), 
g. g. d. (Zephyr) by Walford (871), — (Friday the Sec- 
'ond) by Wonder (420) — (Friday) by Commerce (354), 
— (Pretty Maid) by The Sheriff (356), — (Sovereign) 
(404)."— ("Herd Book of Hereford Cattle," vol. vii., 
p. 125.) 

The cows in all the above cases are identified by the 
name of their sire following their own. w. f. after 
Cotmore means white face ; in the first volumes of the 



414 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BPvEEDING. 

" Hereford Herd-Book " this abbreviation was used, as 
also M. F. for mottled face, g. for gray, etc. 

Devon form of pedigree : 

"Peince of Wales (105) referred to as Quartly's 
Prince of Wales ; calved in 1843, bred by James Quart- 
ly, the property of Earl Leicester. He won the 1st prize 
as best young bull in 1844, and 1st prize as best old 
bull in 1845, at Exeter ; and 1st prize in class 2, at the 
R. A. M. at Shrewsbury. Sire, Prince Albert (102) : 
grandsire, Hundred Guinea (56) : dam Duchess (146) 
by Hundred Guinea (56) : grandam Lilly, by a son of 
Forester, (46) out of Long-Horned Curly, bred by Mr. 
F. Quartly."— (Davy's " Devon Herd-Book," vol. i., p. 
26. See page 149 for the same pedigree in tabular form.) 

"466 EvELEE-s^ 5th. 

Calved March 14, 1862 ; bred by the late Edward G. 
Faile, West Farms, N". Y. ; the property of Michigan 
State Agricultural College, Lansing, Mich. 

Sire Cayuga (602) (58TE) ; 2d sire, Tecumseh (567) 
(535 E) ; 3d sire, Frank Quartly (205), imported ; 4th 
sire. Earl of Exeter (38) ; 5th sire. Baronet (6). 

Dam, imported Eveleen (691), bred by Mr. George 
Turner, of Barton, England, by Earl of Exeter (38) ; 2d 
Dam, Ruby (1035), by Favorite (43) ; 3d Dam, Pink 
(952), by a son of Pretty Maid (366), and Watson 
(129) ; 4th Dam, bred by Mr. John Halse."—(" Ameri- 
can Devon Herd-Book," vol. ii., p. 105.) 

In Devon pedigrees " The figures in parentheses with 
the letter E, thus (00 E) refer to Davy's third volume 
of * English Devon Herd-Book.' The figures in paren- 
theses, thus (00), refer to Davy's first and second vol- 



/ 



APPENDIX. 415 

umes, and Howard's third volume ; " while in references 
to the "American Devon Herd-Book" the figures are 
not inclosed in parentheses. 

This complication in the numbers designating re- 
corded animals arises from the simultaneous publication, 
in England and America, of a third volume of pedigrees, 
the numbers in each being a continuation of the num- 
bers in the first and second volumes of the "English 
Herd-Book." There are therefore two so-called third 
volumes of the " Devon Herd-Book," one English, a con- 
tinuation of Davy's original series, and the other Ameri- 
can, known as Howard's third volume. 

After the publication of the latter an " Association 
of Breeders " started an American " Devon Herd-Book," 
in which American pedigrees are now recorded. 

Ayrshire form of record : 

"668 Nettie. 

Light red with a little white ; calved May 13, 1863 ; 
bred by Henry H. Peters, Southboro, Mass. ; owned by 
Prof. Manly Miles, Lansing, Mich. 

Sire, Eglinton, 21. Dam, Ruth, 193." 
(American "Ayrshire Herd-Book," vol. ii., p. 102.) 
The sire and dam only are given here, and reference 
to the record under their numbers is necessary to extend 
the pedigree. 

There are now three "Ayrshire Herd-Books" pub- 
lished in America ; but we need not give examples of 
pedigrees from all of them, as the system of recording 
is essentially the same, the cows as well as the bulls 
having a distinguishing number. 

The pedigrees in the record of the "American Jersey 
Cattle Club " are published in tabular form ; the sire 



416 PRINCIPLES OP STOCK-BREEDING. 

and dam, each with a distinguishing number, are alone 
given. The headings of the different columns, in which 
the record is made, are as follows : 

No. — Name — Sire and Dam — When dropped — Color 
and distinguishing marhs — Breeder — Owner. 

If the animals are imported, the date and other par- 
ticulars of the importation are given in foot-notes. 

Since April, 1882, a more explicit description of 
color and distinguishing marks has been required. 
Animals with a ^^ white switch" are not to be de- 
scribed as of "" solid color." 

Numbers enclosed in brackets [ ] refer to Jersey 
Herd-Book (Island of Jersey) , and numbers in paren- 
theses ( ) refer to American Jersey Cattle Club Reg- 
ister. 



TUBERCULOSIS. 

Scrofula, or what is now known as tuberculosis, is 
undoubtedly the most common disease of domesticated 
animals, and it is not limited in its range to any particu- 
lar locality. While pleuro-pneumonia, and anthrax, and 
other diseases that are well known to be contagious, 
occur as epidemics, which excite a general interest from 
the severity of their local ravages, making it necessary 
for government to interfere for their suppression by 
quarantine regulations, they are less to be dreaded than 
the insidious and persistent influence of tubercular dis- 
eases that are everywhere prevalent. 

It has been estimated that one-seventh of the deaths 
of the human race are caused by tuberculosis in its va- 
rious forms, and that of those who die in the period of 



APPENDIX. 417 

active middle age at least one-third are tlie victims of 
the same disease. Statistics are wanting to show the 
causes of death among domesticated animals, but it will 
be safe to say that quite as large a proportionate mor- 
tality, from natural causes, must be attributed to tuber- 
culous diseases. 

We have called attention to the fact that domesti- 
cated animals, and especially those in confinement, are 
peculiarly liable to tubercular disease, and it must also 
be admitted that among the best types of our modern 
improved breeds, which present the widest divergence 
from the normal characteristics of the species, this pre- 
disposition is still further intensified. 

Many careful observers have for a long time been 
inclined to believe that tuberculous animals might com- 
municate the disease to others, and experiments recently 
made show conclusively that the disease is contagious. 

Healthy pigs, rabbits, cats. Guinea-pigs, and other 
small animals, inoculated with tuberculous matter, or 
receiving in their food the juice of the flesh, the milk, 
or excretions from the lungs of diseased animals, have 
so uniformly become tuberculous that the communica- 
tion of the disease by such means cannot be doubted. 
The exhalations of the breath have also been shown to 
be an efficient source of infection. 

The specific tubercle-bacillus, discovered by Koch 
(which was briefly mentioned on page 25), furnishes a 
complete and satisfactory explanation of the experi- 
ments that have been made in regard to the contagious- 
ness of the disease. Koch succeeded in cultivating the 
tubercle-bacillus, in suitable nutritive materials, out- 
side of the animal body, for as many as eight succes- 
sive generations, and during periods of several months, 



418 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING. 

and animals inoculated with the new virus thus obtained 
became uniformly tuberculous. 

The sputa of consumptive patients swarm with 
tubercle-bacilli, many of which contain spores, or germs, 
that do not lose their vitality by drying. Koch found 
that such expectorated matters, after drying for eight 
weeks, very readily communicated the disease to Guinea- 
pigs, and it is probable that the spores, under favorable 
conditions, may retain their vitality for an indefinite 
period. For the growth and propagation of the bacilli 
a temperature of from 86° to 104° Fahr. was required. 
In their natural state the tubercle-bacilli could not be 
seen with the microscope, but they were readily detected 
when subjected to a peculiar process of staining. 

These experiments, so ably and skillfully conducted, 
are of the greatest practical importance from a sanitary 
point of view, as they not only demonstrate the manner 
in which the contagium is communicated, but they also 
clearly indicate the precautions that must be taken to 
prevent the diffusion of the disease. 

It has been observed that young animals kept near 
those that have tuberculosis are readily infected, and 
many of the cases of scrofula that are supposed to be 
hereditary, when congenital, may be the results of im- 
mediate contagion. The importance of selecting breed- 
ing-stock that is free from tuberculosis cannot be too 
strongly urged, as diseased animals not only transmit a 
predisposition to the disease to their offspring, but dis- 
seminate it directly by contagion. 

When it is generally known that tuberculosis is con- 
tagious, and that the specific germs, which are the ex- 
citing cause, can be so readily communicated, in various 
ways, to those that are not predisposed to it, strict sani- 



APPENDIX. 419 

tary regulations will be enforced to prevent the sale of 
the milk or flesh of tuberculous animals, and raw or 
underdone meats will not find a place on our tables. 
As there is no known remedy for the cure of tubercu- 
losis, good sanitary conditions, including thorough ven- 
tilation, a nourishing diet, and the isolation of subjects 
of the disease, will be found the best means of prevent- 
ing its dissemination. 



IlfDEX, 



Abnormal characters, heredity o^ 49. 

Acquired characters, heredity o^ 40. 

Adaptation of animals to locality, 10, 886. 

Allen, L. F., observations on period of 
gestation, 404. 

Alternation of generations in heredity of 
disease, 32, 71 ; of generations in he- 
redity of qualities, 73. 

Ambidextrous family, 45. 

Ancon sheep, 56. 

Animals as machines, 4. 

Antagonistic characters not incompati- 
ble, 91. 

Antagonism, of acquired and natural 
traits, 48; of functions, 90; of milk 
and meat production, 391 ; of nutritive 
and reproductive functions. 111; of 
reproductive functions and fatty di- 
athesis, 117. 

Arrest of development, 292. 

Art based on practice, 8. 

Artificial characters of unproved breeds, 
104, 155; unstable, 104. 

Art of breeding, 1 ; in advance of the sci- 
ence, 8 ; object of, 7. 

Atavism, 66; color in Short- Horns, 69; 
compared with memory, 80 ; developed 
by cross-breeding, 206, 208 ; Dr. Chad- 
bourne's case oi; 69; Dr. Struther's 
case of extra digits, 68 ; George III., 
case of insanity, 63 ; in Buflf Cochins, 
from cross of families, 206 ; horns in 
polled breeds, 68 ; in Essex swine, C8 ; 
in Malay fowls, 67 ; in polled cattle in 
Maine, 67 ; in Eumpless fowls, 67 ; not 
always reversion, 73; pointer bitch 
Sappho, 67; sexual limitation of, 71, 



223 ; Siebold's case of; 69 ; tan-colored 

marks on merinos, 70 ; without limit, 

80. 
Athletes, famiUes of, 14. 
Ayrshires, form of recorded pedigrees, 

415. 

Bach family, musicians, 15. 

Bakewell, Eobert, 2. 

Balance of the organization, 95. 

Bantams, Sebright, fecundity of; 89. 

Barrenness, causes of, 116-121 ; from fat- 
ty degeneration, 121 ; from plethoric 
condition, 116. 

Barre, Victorie, 51. 

Basque settlements, intermarriages in, 
187. 

Bat, correlated characters of, 86. 

Bates's Short-Horns, pedigree of, 144. 

Bee, determination of sex in, 331. 

Beef and milk, 90, 391. 

Bemis, Dr., report on marriages of con- 
sanguinity, 182. 

Bilateral symmetry of tumors, 81. 

Birth-rate, increase of increases propor- 
tion of females, 820 ; influence of wars 
and epidemics on, 318 ; of males in ex- 
cess of females, 815. 

Births, cases of plural, 180 ; relative num- 
ber in old and new countries, 125 ; to 
a marriage in Paris, 124. 

Bitch with three legs, 57. 

Black dogs, tan-colored marks on, 88. 

Blending of characters not a law of he- 
redity, 76-78. 

Blindness, heredity of, 29. 

Blind persons, sense of touch in, 87. 



4.22 



INDEX. 



" Blood " not to be estimated in mathe- 
matical proportions, 340. 

Bones, an index of qualities, 866. 

Bone-spavin inherited, 23. 

Booth Short-Horns, causes of diminished 
fecundity in, ITO; in-bred, 143-146; 
pedigree of, 147. 

Brand-marks on animals, heredity of, 58. 

Breeding as an art, 1 ; importance of care 
in, 342. 

Breeding-in-the-line defined, 349. 

Breeds, origin of, 337 ; refined characters 
of improved, 97 ; uniformity in charac- 
ters of, 13. 

Bremen geese, in-bred, 166. 

Brisket, form of, 375. 

Brovvn-Sequard's, Dr., experiments with 
Guinea-pigs, 58, 59. 

Bufl: Cochins, atavism in, from cross of 
families, 206. 

Butts, Mr. George, in-breeding of Short- 
Horns, 163. 

Calculi, renal, heredity of, 229. 
Cancer, heredity of, 33. 
Carnivora, correlated characters of, 84. 
Cat, case of cross-heredity in, 253 ; with 

crushed tail, 57. 
Cats, inherited habit in, 43 ; white, with 

blue eyes, deaf 88. 
Cattle, in South America, milking quali- 
ties of; 101 ; wild, of Chillingham Park, 

165. 
Characters inherited as physiological 

units, 76. 
Charmer, Short-Horn cow, breeding of, 

171-174. 
Charmoise breed of sheep, origin o^ 197, 
Cheese, inherited aversion to, 229. 
Chest, form of, 874. 
Cheviot sheep crossed on Black-Faced 

Heath breed, 193 ; cross with Dishley, 

194. 
Chillingham Park cattle, 165. 
Circulation, capillary, importance of, 379. 
Civilization, influence of, on fecimdily, 

123. 
Clarissa, Short-Horn cow, pedigree of, 

171. 
Climatic variations of wheat and maize, 

94. 
Close-breeding, 137, 349-, not a direct 



cause of degeneracy, 162 ; objections to, 
188. 

Coat, peculiarities of, 881. 

Colling Short-Horns, pedigree of, 172. 

Color, atavic transmission of, 63. 

Color-blindness and musical ear, 87 ; he- 
redity of, 19 ; sexual limitation in he- 
redity of, 228. 

Combination of qualities, how produced, 
892. 

Conditions of Ufe, influence of, on fecun- 
dity, lOS, 394; a cause of variation, 92, 
104, 105. 

Consanguineous marriages, reports on, 
176-186. 

Constancy of species and types, 12. 

Consumption, statistics of, 26. 

Congenital defects, 23 ; caused by defec- 
tive sanitary conditions, 105. 

Corpus luteum, peculiarities of, 276. 

Correlation, law of, S3 ; law of, illustrated 
in monstrosities, 291 ; of horns with 
reproductive organs, 88; of milking 
qualities and fertiUty, 122, 175. 

Correlations of external form, 353-355; 
of functions, 103. 

Cotmore, Hereford bull, pedigree of. 164. 

Cow, period of gestation in, 402 ; prolific, 
131-183. 

Cregan, Irish horse, transmitting blind- 
ness, 29. 

Cross-bred, definition of, 349. 

Cross-breeding, 190 ; continued influence 
of, 840 ; effects of, 193, 204, 340 ; good 
males required in, 195. 

Cross-heredity, case of, in cat, 253. 

Cross-breeds, difficulty in estabUshing, 
208. 

Cross of Cheviot and Black-Faced Heath 
breeds, 193. 

Curbs, heredity o^ 28. 

Darkness, influence of, in producing de- 
formities, 105. 

Dauborn, village of, intermarriages in, 186. 

Day-blindness, heredity of, 20. 

Deaf-dumbness and consanguinity, 176 ; 
heredity of, 173. 

Deafness, alternation of, in a family, 74 ; 
in cats, correlated with color, 88. 

Deer, correlation of horns and reproduc- 
tive organs in, 88. 



INDEX. 



423 



Defective nutrition, 23, 24, 84. 

Defective proportion of limbs predispos- 
ing to disease, 34. 

Deformities, heredity of, 57 ; caused by 
living in dark apartments, 106, 

Development, arrest o^, 292; of special 
characters and scrofula, 116. 

Devon cattle, in-and-in breeding of, 148 ; 
form of recorded pedigrees, 414. 

Diagram of Bates pedigrees, 144; of 
Booth pedigrees, 147 ; pedigree of bull 
Shakespeare, 148 ; of Duke of Airdrie, 
142 ; of Goldsmith's Maid, 151 ; of me- 
rino ram Gold Drop, 152; of New 
York Mills Short-Horns, 145. 

Dickson, Dr., on consanguineous mar- 
riages, 184. 

Digits, supernumerary and deficient, 50, 
51. ' 

Disease, atavic, transmission of, SO ; foetus 
in utero liable to, 294 ; of one sex trans- 
mitted by the other, 224 ; predisposing 
and exciting causes of, 25, 26 ; varied 
forms of, 25 ; heredity of; 22. 

Disposition inherited, 18. 

Dogs, acquired habits in, transmitted, 43 ; 
inherited characters of, 40; wolf-like, 
of Falkland islands, 45. 

Domestication favorable to fecimdity, 110. 

Domesticated varieties more liable to va- 
riation, 92. 

Dominant characters, 77; fixed by in- 
breeding, 156 ; how made uniform, 220. 

Dominique fowls, in-breeding of, 167. 

Dorking fowls, fifth toe in, 52. 

Duck, bones in wUd and tame, 101. 

Ducornet, the historical painter, 105. 

Duforet, Aug., case of, 51. 

Duke of Airdrie, pedigree of, 142, 411. 

Dupuy, Dr., experiments of, with Guinea- 
pigs, 59. 

Duration of life determined by heredity, 
16. 

Dwarfs, case of children alternately, 74. 

Earle's, Dr., case of color-blindness, 19. 

Early breeders, practice of, 2 ; early ma- 
turity, modified dentition from, 103; 
shortens the period of gestation, 407. 

Ear, expression of, 371. 

Ears, small, in family of sheep, 54. 

Eggs, number of, in fowls, 37. 



Election in heredity, 79. 
Embryo, development ofj 239. 
Embryological development, law of, 291. 
Endemic causes of variation, 106. 
Epileptic Guinea-pigs, 58. 
Equilibrium of the system defective in 

pampered animals, 91, 116. 
Escutcheon of Guenon, 383. 
Experiments with Guinea-pigs, 58. 
External conformation, importance of, 

352. 
Eyelid, deformed, 53. 
Eyes, tortoise-shell colored, hereditary, 

54. 

Family characters hereditary, 13, 44 ; how 
produced, 103 ; variations in, 219 ; type 
modified by engrafting new characters, 
104, 161. 

Fancy points and prices, 845. 

Fat, excessive deposit not favorable to 
health, 118. 

Fattening tendency hereditary, 15, 40. 

Fatty degeneration, 119-121 ; diathesis a 
cause of impaired fecundity, 117-120. 

Fear of man in mid animals acquired, 45. 

Fecimdation, of eggs in turtles, 279 ; pre- 
cise time of, uncertain, 301. 

Fecundity, 108 ; depressing influences 
favoring, 320 ; determined by heredity, 
17, 38, 126 ; diminished, in young ani- 
mals, 38, 113; impaired, restored by 
selection, 170 ; influenced by quahty of 
food, 113 ; of animals in confinement, 
108, 109 ; of merino sheep in England, 
109 ; relation of size in animals to, 114; 
of sheep in the Cordilleras, 109. 

Feed, better supply of, required by im- 
proved breeds, 212. 

Feeding, experiments in, 5. 

Female, characters of, transmitted by 
male, 230. 

Fertility diminished by over-feeding, 115. 

Fineness of wool-fibres, change in, 97. 

Finger, deformed, case of inheritance oi, 
57. 

Foetus in utero liable to disease, 294. 

Food, a variety of, required, 93 ; influence 
of, in modifying animals, 96; supply 
and fecundity, 114, 125. 

Form, an index of quality, 352 ; propor- 
tions of, in meat-producing breeds, 358. 



424 




Foscote flock, in-breeding of, 153, 

Fowls, Dominique, in-breeding of, 167 ; 
fecundity of, in confinement, 109 ; fifth 
toe in, 52. 

Free-martins, imperfect reproductive or- 
gans of, 134, 136. 

Functional derangement of organs trans- 
mitted, 59. 

Function, heredity of, not dependent on 
structure, 64. 

Geese in-bred by Colonel Jaques, 166. 

Gestation, influence of sex on period of, 
408; period of, 490; period ol^ varies 
•with size of animals, 400. 

Gold Drop, pedigree of merino ram, 152. 

Goldsmith's Maid, pedigree of, 151. 

Grades, breeding of, 204, 211, 398; de- 
fined, 349; high-bred males desirable 
in breeding, 393. 

Grease in horses, heredity of, 30. 

Greyhounds acclimated in Mexico, 102. 

Grazier, Short-Horn bull, pedigree of, 
171, 173. 

Guinea-pigs, Dr. Brown-S6quard''8 ex- 
periments with, 58, 59; Dr. Dupuy's 
report of experiments with, 60. 

Habit, change of, in animals, 47. 

Habits, heredity of, 43. 

Hair, lock of different color inherited, 56 ; 
turning gray early in life, inherited, 20. 

Half-and-half theory of generation, objec- 
tions to. 238. 

Hammond family of merino sheep in- 
bred, 150. 

Hampshire sheep, cross-breeding of, 191. 

Handling, indications of, 379. 

Handwriting, heredity of, 44. 

Hardiness, diminished, in improved 
breeds, 389. 

Harmony of different farm interests, 9. 

Hasmorrhage, heredity of, vnth. sexual 
limitation, 72. 

Herbivorous animals, correlated charac- 
ters of, 85. 

Heredity, half-and-half theory of, 234 ; 
of abnormal characters, 49 ; of acquired 
characters, 40 ; of bony tumors, 31 ; of 
deaf-mutism, 178-180 ; of disease, 22 ; 
of functional activity of organs, 23 ; of 
habits, 43, 4T; of normal characters, 



11; of the production of twins, 128, 
129. 

Hereford cattle, in-breeding of, 146, 164; 
bull Cotmore, breeding of, 163, 164; 
form of recorded pedigrees, 413. 
I High-breeding defined, 139, 349 ; relations 
i to prepotency, 216. 

ylind-quarters, form of, 375. 

Hornless bull, accidental character trans- 
mitted, 54. 

Horns, an index of qualities, 371. 

Horse, correlation of white on feet and 
face, 88. 

Horses in-bred, 149. 

Houdan fowls, fifth toe in, 52. 

Hybrids, peculiarities of, 242-248. 

Hydrocele, transmitted by female, 232. 

Ichthyosis, hereditary case o^ 71. 

Ideal model of Bakewell, 2. 

Idiocy, acquired, not congenital, 187; re- 
lation to marriages of consanguinity, 
187. 

Imagination, supposed influence of, 281- 
287. 

Immaturity in breeding stock, effect on 
offspring, 36. 

Impregnation, continued influence of, 
273-277; influence of previous, 255, 
partial, 278-280; repeated fertilization 
to produce, 279. 

Impaired nutrition and decreased fecun- 
dity, 112. 

Improved breeds, artificial characters o^ 
155 ; characters difficult to retain, 104. 

Improvements limited by tendency to 
variation, 107. 

In-and-in breeding, 137; and impaired 
fecundity, 168 ; generally practised by 
improvers of breeds, 140, 141, 143 ; in- 
fluence 0^ 156; objects o^ 140, 154, 
155. 

In-breeding necessary to retain family 
characters, 157. 

Incubation, supposed influence of, on off- 
spring, 231. 

Indian-corn, climatic variations in, 93. 

Indirect transmission of disease, 34. 

Inheritance of parental characters, 79. 

Insanity, heredity o^ 27 ; relation o^ to 
consanguinity, 188. 

Instincts, accumulated experience, 47. 



INDEX. 



425 



Intra-uterine influences, 281. 
Irish marriages, statistics o^ 306. 

Jaques, Colonel, in-breeding of geese by, 
166. 

Jarvis, Dr., on consanguineous mar- 
riages, 185. 

Jerseys, form of recorded pedigrees, 415. 

Jews, constancy of race, 13 ; intermar- 
riages among the, 180. 

Kangaroo, correlated organs of, 86. 

Kelleia, Gratio, heredity of extra digits, 
49. 

Kerry cattle, effect of changed condi- 
tions on, 100. 

Lambs, early market, 213. 

Landau, siege o^ 282. 

Latent characters, T7; latent predisposi- 
tion to disease, 32. 

Le Compte femily, blindness in, 30. 

Leicester sheep, in-breeding of, 353. 

Life, duration o^ hereditary, 16. 

Light, influence of, on development, 105. 

Like begets Uke, extent of the law, 2. 

Lille, deformed beggars born in, 106. 

Limbs, embryonic development o^ 293. 

Live-stock as machines, 4; relations of, 
to tillage, 9. 

Longevity hereditary, 16. 

Long-horn cattle, pedigrees o^ 148 ; Mar- 
shall's description of, 159. 

Madness, heredity of, in male line, 229. 

Maize, climatic variations in, 98. 

Malay fowls, atavism in, 67; in-bred, 166. 

Male, characters o^ transmitted by fe- 
male, 232; influence of, on offspring, 
215, 218. 

Malformations, heredity of, 56, 57; not 
produced by maternal imagination, 288. 

Males, at birth more numerous than fe- 
males, 315 ; greater death-rate of young, 
315 ; importance of high-breeding in, 
217, 397 ; importance of prepotency in, 
157. 

Manatee, fear of man in, 46. 

Mare, period of gestation in, 402. 

Maturity, early, and correlated modifica- 
tions of the system, 103 ; of germ, in- 
fluence of, on sex, 298. 



Male, supposed transmission of external 
characters by, 234, 

Males produced from unimpregnated 
eggs of bee, 332. 

Medicines as exciting causes of disease, 
26. 

Mental disease, 27; habits, heredity o^ 
18. 

Merino sheep, atavic transmission of 
spots, 70; fecundity of, in England, 
109 ; influence of changed conditions 
on, 96 ; in-breeding of, 150, 175. 

Meynel's, Mr., fox-hounds in-bred, 138. 

Migration of birds, a habit, 48 ; relation 
of, to reproductive functions, 114. 

Milcote sale of Short-Horns, 171. 

Milk and beef, 90, 391. 

Milking quaUties hereditary, 58. 

Milk-secretion dependent on habit, 102 ; 
relation of, to fecundity, 122, 175. 

Monstrosities, general law influencing, 
289. 

Mountain-breeds, small, 95. 

Mule, parental characters of, 242-247 
organ of voice in, 243, 247. 

Muscular strength, heredity of, 14; de- 
velopment from exercise, 101. 

Musical talent, heredity o^ 15. 

Nature and culture, 48. 

Neck, form of, 373. 

New characters in a family tend to vary 
the type, 104. 

Newman's, Dr., report on " Marriages of 
Consanguinity," 184. 

New York Mills Short- Horns, pedigrees 
of, 145. 

Niata cattle, 56. 

Night-blindness inherited, 20. 

Non-inheritance, how determined, 69. 

Norwegian ponies, habit in, 48. 

Nutrition, impaired, a cause of malforma- 
tions, 292. 

Nutritive functions and impaired fecun- 
dity, 111. - ■ 

Obesity, heredity of, 233. 
Object of the art of breeding, T. 
Offspring, size of, at birth, 212. 
Ophthalmia, hereditary case ot, 29. 
Orton's theory of heredity, 237, 242. 
Otter breed of sheep, 55. 



426 



INDEX. 



Oxfordshire breed of sheep cross-bred, 
192. 

Pampering, a cause of impaired fecundi- 
ity, 170. 

Parental characters, all ancestors includ- 
ed in, 75. 

Parents, relative influence o^ 215. 

Peccary, instinct of doga in hunting the, 
41. 

Pedigree, 337; importance of, 82; of 
Bates's Short-Horns, 144 ; of Booth's 
Short-Horns, 147 ; of Colling's Short- 
Horns, 172 ; of Devon bull, Quartly's 
Prince of Wales, 149, 414 ; of Duke of 
Au-drie, 142, 411 ; of Goldsmith Maid, 
151 ; of Hereford bull Cotmore, 164 ; 
of Long-Horn buU Shakespeare, 148 ; of 
merino ram Gold Drop, 152; of New 
York Mills Short-Horns, 145 ; of Short- 
Horn bull Grader, 173; value of; 839- 
844. 

Pedigrees, how recorded, 850, 411. 

Period of gestation, 400. 

Physiological units, characters inherited 
as, 76. 

Physiology, applications of, 8. 

Pigeons, in-breeding o^ 167. 

Pigs pointing game, 48. 

Pitcairn Island Settlement, intermar- 
riages in, 187. 

Plague, influence o^ on fecundity, 126. 

Plasticity of organization of animals, 92. 

Plethora unfavorable to fecundity, 115. 

Plural births, cases of; 127, 130, 133. 

Points of animals, 369, 370. 

Polled cattle, origin of, 54. 

Polydactylism, 49, 50. 

Practice of the best breeders, 143. 

Precocious marriages, 36. 

Predisposition to disease, heredity of, 23, 
32. 

Prepotency, developed by in-breeding, 
156, 158; how modified, 204, 221 ; im- 
paired by cross-breeding, 200 ; influence 
of, in cross-breeding, 197-202 ; not ac- 
cidental, 158; of different breeds, 202. 

Principles of breeding, 1. 

Profit the measure of success in breed- 
ing, 4. 

Proportion of limbs predisposing to dis- 
ease, 34. 



Pumpkin-buttock cattle, 875. 
Pure-bred defined, 349. 

Qualifications of a breeder, 3. 

QuaUty, 379. 

Quality of food, influence of, on reproduc- 
tive functions, 113. 

Quartly's Prince of "Wales, pedigree of, 
149. 

Queen-bee, development of, 338. 

Eabbits, breed of, with one ear, 57. 

Eelative influence of parents, 215. 

Eeproductive organs, activity of, de- 
pendent on nutrition. 111 ; correlated 
modiflcations of; 122 ; dormant during 
period of growth, 112. 

Eesemblance of ofEspring to parents, 11, 
75. 

Eeversion, 66; favored by cross-breed- 
ing, 204. 

Eheumatic gout, sexual limitation in he- 
redity of, 227. 

Eiches, influence of, on fecundity, 123. 

Eich family of merinos, in-breeding of, 
153. 

Eing-bone, heredity of, 28, 

Eoaring in horses inherited, 29. 

Eoot-pruning of trees for unlruitfulness, 
112. 

Eumpless fowls, atavism in, 67 ; fecundi- 
ty of, 89. 

Saigak antelopes, 46. 

Sanitary conditions, influence of; 106. 

Scarce egger-moth, 79. 

Science, relations of, to the art of breed- 
ing, 8. 

Scrofula, causes of, 25; heredity ol, 24, 
25; indications of; 24; various forms 
of, 25,416. 

Scrofulous tumors of ovary, 121. 

Secondary sexual characters, relation of; 
to fertility, 89. 

Selection, 885 ; by early breeders, 2 ; with 
reference to fecundity, 395. 

Sex, causes that determine, 296-336 ; de- 
termined by heredity, 327 ; determined 
by parental influence, 824 ; Dr. Flint's 
theory of, 330 ; influence of illegitimacy 
on, 311 ; influence of degree of impreg- 
nation in determining, 881 ; influence 



INDEX 



427 



of relative age of parents on, 304; In- 
fluence of relative vigor of parents on, 
831 ; in insects determined by nutri- 
tion, 332; M. Girou'B theory of, 302; 
Mr. Stuyvesant's theory of, 835; M. 
Thury's theory of, 298; Sir Everard 
Home's theory of, 329, 

Sexes, relative proportion of, 806-315; 
relative proportion in plural births, 
822. 

Sexual limitation of characters, Tl, 222. 

Shakespeare, Long-Horn bull, pedigree 
of, 148, 159, 160. 

Bheath-bUl, 46. 

Sheep, breeding of, twice a year, 132; 
cases of prolific, 131 ; Charmoise breed, 
origin of, 197 ; cross-bred, 191 ; in the 
Cordilleras not prolific, 109; little- 
eared breed of, 54; on rich pastures 
prolific. 111; period of gestation in, 
405; variations in, from changed con- 
ditions, 9T. 

Bhepherd-dogs, inherited habits of, 41. 

Shock of nervous system of mother, in- 
fluence of, 292. 

Short-horns, Bates's pedigrees, 144, 411 ; 
Booth's pedigrees, 146, 147, 411 ; Col- 
ling's pedigrees, 172 ; form of pedigree, 
411 ; in-bred by Mr. Butts, 163 ; New 
Tork Mills pedigrees, 145. 

Shropshire sheep, origin ofi 192. 

Shoulders, best form of, 374. 

Sight, long and short, heredity of, 20. 

Size of animals and food-supply, 95 ; in- 
fluence of, on fecundity, 114. 

Skin-disease, sexual limitation of, heredi- 
tary, 222 ; skin, peculiarities of, indi- 
cating quality, 381. 

Smell, sense of, acute in blind persons, 
87. 

Sow, case of prolific, 132. 

Spencer, Earl, on period of gestation, 
403. 

Spermatozoa, several required for fecun- 
dation, 280. 

Spontaneity, 76, 81. 

Spontaneous prepotency not probable, 
158. 

Spooner's theory of inheritance, 237. 

Springing spaniels, changed instinct in, 
41. 

Standard of excellence desirable, 353. 



Statistics of births, defects in, 313. 

Strain of back-tendons, 29. 

Sugar as food, relations to fertility, 

113. 
Supernumerary organs, varied position 

of, 52. 
Surgical diseases, heredity of, 28. 
Swelled legs, heredity, case of, 29, 30. 
Swine, period of gestation in, 407. 

Tail, loss of, in pigs, hereditary, 56. 

Teeth, decay of, hereditary, 20, 228. 

Temperament of working-animals, 882. 

Temper of animals inherited, 18. 

Terms in use by breeders, 348. 

Texan steer, 877. 

Thorough-bred, definition of, 848. 

Toes, overlapping, heredity of; 50. 

Touch, indications of, 879 ; sense of, in 
blind persons, 87. 

Trotting habit, how developed, 47. 

Tuberculosis, 416. 

Tumors, bilateral symmetry of, 31. 

Turtles, successive fecundation in, 274. 

Twins, conditions favoring production of, 
111,126, 128; female not always bar- 
ren, 128; hereditary procreation of, 
228; inherited production of, through 
male line, 128; production of, not an 
indication of remarkable fertility, 136. 

U S heifer, supposed influence of imagi- 
nation, 285. 

Uterus, absence of, hereditary, 233. 

Value of animals, 4, 6. 

Variation from changed conditions, 105 ; 
in animals, causes of, 93, 105; in inher- 
ited characters, 81 ; law o^ 76, 92 ; 
greater tendency to, in domesticated 
animals, 92; in abnormal characters, 
52 ; not spontaneous, 76. 

Variations that are desirable diflScult to 
retain, 156; from endemic causes, 106; 
tendency to, imdesirable, 390, 

Voice, organ of, in the ass and mule, 248, 
247. 

"Walker's theory of inheritance, 235, 241, 

250-253. 
"Walk, peculiarity in, hereditary, 20. 
Wealth, relations of, to fertility, 123. 
Wheat, climatic variations in, 94. 



428 



INDEX. 



Wild animals, fear of man in, 45. 
Wild cattle of Chimngham Park, 165. 
Wild geese, in-breeding of, 167. 
Woodcock, change of habits in, 47. 
Wool, measurements of, 97-100. 
Working-animals, correlated structure of; 



Wright's, Mr. J,, in-bred pigs, 168. 
Writing, family peculiarities in, 44. 

Young animals, breeding from, 36 ; not 

prolific, 113. 
Young Mary, Short-Hora cow, fecundity 

0^17. 



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